UNIT ONE

THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY

 Learning objectives
Define science as a way of knowledge and explain it as a way
of looking at and thinking about natural events.
Describe and explain the main steps that scientists follow
when they are investigating something.
Demonstrate scientific methods by narrating how Louis
Pasteur and Alexander Fleming used the scientific method to
solve problems.
Plan and conduct an experiment to investigate a particular
observation.
Write a report for a scientific experiment.
THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY
The word biology is derived from two Greek words:
bios- meaning life
logos- meaning study
Biology is the science of life and living organisms.
Organism living being made from one cell( like bacteria, unicellular algae) or many
cell (like animals, plants, most fungi).
Life is the characteristics of an organism that makes them alive, it includes:
Nutrition, reproduction, growth, sensitive to stimuli, metabolizing, moving by their
own, excretion.
There are many field of biology including:
Paleobiology - the study of the origin and evolution of life
Astrobiology (exobiology)- outer-space biology: investigation of the possibility
of life on other planets in our Solar System and in galaxies elsewhere in the Universe.
Biomedical biology-research into the development of new drugs and vaccines . It
also studies the ways in which disease develop.
Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms(microorganisms)
Botany- the scientific study of plants
Zoology- the study of animals
Cont,…
Ethology- the study of animal behaviour
Oncology- the study of cancer
Entomology- the study of insects
Genetics- the study of heredity and identity
Neurology- the study of neuron
Cytology- the study of cell
Ecology- the study of the relationship of organisms, and their
environment
Physiology- the biological study of the function of organisms
and their parts
Taxonomy- the science of identification, classification and
naming of organisms
Besides these biologist, there are others, these
includes( doctors, dentists, veterinary surgeons, nurses,
physiotherapist's, biochemist, agricultural biochemist
 Brach of biology
Basis of division Branch of biology
Taxonomy
Botany, Zoology
classification Angiosperm biology, pteridology, phanerogamy, phycology,
Bryology, Cryptogamy, Protozoology, Helmintology,
Entomology, Malacology, Ichthyology, Herpetology,
Orinthology, Mammalogy, Anthropology, Virology, B
acteriology, Mycology, Rickttisiology, Microbiology

Change and development Embryology, Genetics, Evolution, Paleontology

Structure and functioning Molecular biology, Cytology, Histology, Physiology, Anatomy,

Biochemistry, Biophysics, Immunology, Pathology

Interaction with living Ethology, sociobiology, Biogeography, Ecology, Conservation,

things and environment Parasitology, Epidemiology, Immunology

Application Biometry, Medicine, Pharmacology, Agriculture,

Nutrition, Forestry, Biotechnology, Bioinformatics
Cont……
 Many different biologists are involved in the Human Genome
Project.
• Produce the first ever map of 46 chromosomes
• Located genes in a chromosome
• Determine the exact structure of each chromosomes
What is science?
The word science comes from the latin word “scientia” which
means knowledge. But science is not just about having
knowledge.
Science describes features of:
 both knowledge content and methods of generating

new knowledge.
acquiring knowledge based on scientific method.
It is an ongoing effort to find new information and
principles.
Away of looking at and thinking about the natural world.
Science collect evidence that supports or disprove a particular
suggested explanations of a natural phenomenon
 Branch of science
 science

Natural science social science

Physical science Biological(life) science

Pure/experimental Applied science

Cont…
Science can be:
Experimental (pure)science-

use of experiment to obtain information.
Concerned in the pursuit of basic knowledge of
fundamental principles and concepts.
Example: physics, chemistry, biology
Applied science-
the use scientific research to meet certain human
need.
Concerned in the search for practical use of
knowledge and application of practically useful things
to humans.
Using facts and principles discovered by pure science.
Example: Medicine, Engineering, Agronomy.
 What is scientific method?
The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists and the
rest of us to solve problems
is the process by which scientists approach their work
It is the systematic method of study used by all sciences.
Usually begins with a question about something observed.
The body of techniques for investigating phenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge.
It comprises a series of logical steps to:
• Solve problems
• Discover facts and principles
• Formulate scientific theory and laws

The main steps of scientific method:

The scientific method follows the following steps.
Cont……
Cont……
 0bsevation:
• Leads to identification of specific problems
• Can be made at different stage.
• Initial observations are made when identifying the
problem for investigation.
• Observations are also made when trying to formulate
hypothesis
• Finally when deciding to accept or to reject hypothesis.
• a way of scientist notice something in their natural environment.
 Do background research
• Gathering information from scientific magazines related to the
problem.
• Existing quantitative and qualitative data(information)about the
problem are collected .
Cont…
 Formulating Hypothesis
• An educated guess or suggested explanation of certain
observed natural phenomenon based on observation and
gathered information.
• It is a wise guess or assumption subjected to testing of its
acceptance or rejection.
• It must be testable to be valid.
• A hypothesis should be able to accomplish two functions:
• It should consider all the observed facts relevant to the
problem.
• It should lead to a prediction to make it suitable for testing.
• Predict an outcome of the experiment
• Involve how the independent variable influence the
dependent variable.
Cont….
 Experiment/testing hypothesis
Test must be consistent or repeated.
Hypothesis testing by scientific experiment involves:
• Experimental design
• Materials and methods
• Recording results and observations
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Discussion and conclusion
• Evaluation of reproducibility of results
• Finally report writhing and publishing results.
A hypothesis that is consistent with repeated experimental
results or observations will be accepted while hypothesis not
supported by experimental results or observations will be
rejected.
Cont…
A procedure of an experiment must be include:
The apparatus used
Detail of any chemical used with specified
measurement unit(volume, concentration or
mass were used)
Detail of any organism used
Detail of any control group
Specified how many times repeat the experiment
Describe how to the change independent
variable and how to measure that change
 Conclusion:
Based on experimental results and analysis conclusion are
drawn either to accept or to reject the hypothesis.
Cont…
A hypothesis that stand the test by different people at
different places through time, and found acceptable is
called theory.
In science, the word theory means a statement verified
by experimental testing and with a high degree of
probability with high degree of confidence to be true.
When a theory proved invariable under all
circumstances or if variations are systematic or
predictable by further experimentations, it is called a
fact, principle or law.
Cont…..
EXAMPLE ON THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD :
1. Ask a question: Tomato seeds germinate when they
are planted. Why don’t tomato seeds grow inside
tomatoes?
2. Do background research: Before we start to do the
whole investigation ourselves, we will first check
scientific magazines and the internet to see if anyone
else has looked into the problem, or a similar problem.
We found out there are substances that control
growth, called growth regulators.
3. Construct a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated
guess about what a biologist thinks the explanation of
an observation will be. “There are chemicals …….
Cont…
in tomatoes that stop the seeds from growing whilst they are still in
the tomatoes themselves”. This hypothesis is testable by
experiment. We could try covering some seeds with tomato juice
and others with water and see if any germinate. Based on our
hypothesis we can make a prediction: “seeds covered in tomato
juice will not germinate as seeds covered in water”.
 4. Design and carry out an experiment to test the hypothesis:
Put several tomatoes in a blender
Filter (strain) the blended material through some muslin (thin
cotton fabric).
Place 20 tomato seeds in a Petri dish and cover with the juice.
Place 20 tomato seeds in a Petri dish and cover with distilled water.
Place both in a growth cabinet that will keep the temperature and
light conditions constant.
Check the numbers that have germinated in each condition.
Repeat the experiment 50 times to confirm your results
Cont…
5. Analyze results and draw conclusions – Out of 1000 seeds sown in each
conditions, 668 germinated in the distilled water (13.36 per dish) and 265
germinated in the tomato juice (5.3 per dish). It seems something in the
tomato juice is affecting the germination of the seeds. It can’t be the cells
themselves, because they were filtered off. It must be a chemical in the juice.
6. Accept/ reject hypothesis – It seems as though the hypothesis is along the
right lines; the tomato juice will only contain chemicals, not cells, and it does
reduce the amount of germination. So we accept the hypothesis. But inside
the tomatoes themselves, none of the seeds germinate. There is a bit more
work to do yet.
7. Report the result – We must decide whether or not to report the results to
other biologists. Someone else might decide to take the work further and try
to isolate a particular chemical from the many in the juice to find exactly
what is stopping them from growing inside the tomato itself.
Control group: is the standard group in an experiment in which the
experimented groups are compared with. E.g. Seeds that were covered only
in water
Experimental group: is the group which is being experimented on in order
to compare with the control group. E.g. Seeds covered in tomato juice
Class work
1. Are Gregor Mendel and Isaac Newton scientists?
What allow them to be?
2. Did the idea of “spontaneous generation” follow
scientific method?
 Class work
I. Choose the correct answer from A to D.
1. Which of these best describes what science is?
A. a body of knowledge
B. a way of doing experiments
C . a way of looking at and thinking about the natural world
D. a series of ideas
2. The scientific method involves:
A. putting forward hypotheses in a form that can be tested
B . carrying out experiments
C . analyzing results and drawing conclusions
D . all of these
3. Which of the following is NOT a type of biologist?
A . geneticist
B . entomologist
C . astrophysicist
D . doctor
How did the scientific method disprove
the idea of spontaneous generation?
Spontaneous generation is the appearance of living
organism from non-living matter.
Their explanation was based on observation.
 Example:
• Observation- Every year in the spring the Nile flood
leave mud and along with this frogs appeared that
weren’t around in dried times.
• Conclusion- Muddy soil gives rise to frogs
Cont…..
Disproving spontaneous generation
Cont….
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EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES
A variable is any factor, trait, or condition
that can exist in differing amounts or types
which subject to change, measured and
controlled.
Experimental variables
Dependent variable(DV)

Controlled variable Experimental Independent

(CV) variables variable (IV)

Confounding
variable
 Cont..
1. Independent variable (IV)
Is a factor changed or manipulated by the scientist. As the scientist
changes the independent variable, he or she observes what happens
on the performance of dependent variable.
 The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent
variable to see how it responds to the change made to the
independent variable.
2. Dependent variable (DV)
is a factor in an experiment that scientists measured.
It responds to independent variable
3. Controlled variable.
Controlled variables are quantities that a scientist wants to remain
constant, and they must observe them as carefully as the dependent
variables.
Act as a standard for comparison
No experimental treatment
 Cont…
Experimental group:
Only one factor changed from control group
Factors that change in response
4. Confounding variable
A factor that can’t be controlled but which may influence
the result of the experiment
E.g. if you measure the co22uptake by the wheat plants as the
light intensity change over the day, you can’t control the
effect of change
 Fair test- an experiment in which the only difference
between different repeats of the experiment is the different
value of the independent variable, all other factors that
could affect the outcome have been kept constant.
Characteristics of an effective
experiment:
Accuracy- how precisely a measurement is made.
Validity (Latin validu, strong) -the degree in which measurement truly
measures.
Reliability (consistency, reproducibility or repeatability)
• The degree to which a measurement provides the same result each time it is performed
on a given subject or specimen.
 The reliability of an experiment is increased by :
Use standardize procedures
Carrying out repeat experiment. This allow us:
• To spot any anomalous(odd) result that do not fit the general pattern
• To calculate an average result. It is more representative than an individual result
Minimizing personal judgment by using:
• Standards to compare our experiment
• The most appropriate apparatus
N.B. experiment can be reliable without being necessary valid because If
you consistently omit the same important step, you may well keep getting
the same result.
Report writing on scientific experiments
Biologists write reports the results of their
investigations on scientific journals like
nature & science. This help other biologists
to;
Understand their work.
repeat it to check on the results.
To be checked by their peers for
originality, competence & accuracy.
Common rules of writing report
Any scientific report must include;
 Title – states clearly what is being investigated
 Hypothesis - is educated guess that states clearly how
the IV influences the DV.
 Procedure: Is the detailed steps of the experiment
includes detailed
Apparatus
Chemical (volumes, concentrations or masses used)
Any organism (what strain or how many)
Any controlled experiment
 Cont……..
 Result: Outcome of the experiment; provides raw
(i.e., uninterpreted) data collected. Often summarized
using graphs, charts and tables
 Conclusion: Summary drawn from the result the
hypothesis is accepted
 Evaluation: Is the honest assessment of the
limitations of the procedures used. Point out
unavoidable limitations and inaccuracies E.g. Point
out anomalous result
 Acknowledgement: Mention the use of other
person’s work.
 
 Learning objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:
Name and describe the function of the main pieces of
apparatus that are used by biologists the world over.
Describe how these pieces of apparatus work.
Explain how, and under what circumstances, these pieces of
apparatus would be used and demonstrate the use of some
of them.
Classify the apparatus as laboratory tools, field tools or
both.
Be aware of possible health and safety implications of using
these tools.
The tools of biologist
Laboratory tools Field Tools
Dissecting kit
Mortar & pestle

Plant press
Pipette 
Plastic bags
Hand lens 
Insect net
Microscope 
Traps & cages
Petri dish

Digger
water bath

GPS
Autoclave

Data logger
Centrifuge
Terrarium 
PH kit
Test tube 
Theodolite
Incubator 
Pit fall trap
Ruler 
Flow mete
 Cont……
Dissecting equipment; They are used to dissect
specimens or fecal pellets to see their interior.
The kit contains
• Magnifying glass
• Scalpel
• Scissors
• Forceps and
• Mounting needle
 Con…….
Petri dishes; They are round dishes made
from glass or plastic. Petri dishes are used,
• To culture microorganism
• To propagate culture plants
• To show the effectiveness of antibiotics
• To show the concentration of enzymes that
digest substances.
 Con…….
Balances,Are used for measuring mass.

Centrifuges;
• are used to separate solids from liquids
• Ultra centrifuges can spin really fast to
sediment extremely small particles
 Centrifuge
An apparatus that rotate at high speed and by centrifugal force
separates substance of different densities.
It consists of two components, an electric motor to spine the
sample and a rotor to hold tubes.
Can separate solid particles from liquid without the need of
filter.
Procedures
The mixture is placed in centrifuge tube and placed in
centrifuge
The centrifuge spins the tubes at high speed
As the tubes spin, the gravitational force on the solid particles
force them to the bottom of the tube.
After centrifuge, the liquid is called “supernatant” and the solids
at the bottom of the tubes are called “pellet”.
Types of centrifuge
Low speed centrifuge
High speed centrifuge
Ultra-centrifuge
Low speed centrifuge
Used for routine sedimentation of heavy particles
Has maximum speed of 4000-5000rpm
Usually operates at room temprature with no means of temperature control
Used for sedimentation of red blood cell.
High speed centrifuge
Use in more sophisticate biochemical applications, higher speed and
temperature control of the rotor chamber are essential
Ultra-centrifuge
It is the most sophisticated instrument
Intensive heat generated due to high speed thus the spinning chambers must be
refrigerated and kept at high vaccum
Used separate the various component of animal and plant cells
N.B. centrifugation is commonly used in hospitals for stool test because of its
ability to separate particles quickly and clearly.
 Con…..
Measuring cylinders, pipettes, syringes - are used for
measuring of volume, liquid & gas.

Incubator
• An instrument used to set optimum temperature for culture
media

Mortar and pestle

• Needed to grind tissues so that either the cells or chemicals inside
will be liberated

Thermometer
• An instrument used to measure temperature
 microscope
Microscope is a device used to see very small objects.
It has two properties

Magnification Resolution
Capacity to enlarge Ability to scatter parts so that the
details are clearly seen
There are two types of microscope.
 Light microscope [optical ]

 Electron microscope
Microscope
The most popular tool in biology used to examine objects
too small with the naked eye.
Developed by Aton Van Leewwenhoek in 1670s.
The most common type is compound microscope
Compound microscope
is an optical microscope that use beam of light to produce
magnified image.
Used to examined cells and section of tissues.
It has low magnification and resolution power than
electron microscope
Resolution power- is the ability to distinguish between two
points that are close together or to observe the detail
internal structure of an objected specimens.
Magnification power- is to enlarge the size of the object
Phase-contrast microscope
Used to examine highly transparent objects, such as
unstained cells
Fluorescent microscope
Illuminates objects stained with fluorescent dyes.
Had been used to extensively in studying the location of
certain organelles inside object.
Electron microscope
Use a beam of electron to produce magnified image
Scanning electron micrograph(SEM)- is used to examine
the surface or shape of objects, such as, viruses
Transmission electron microscope(TEM)- is used to study
internal structure of cells through sectioned specimen.
 Comparison
light microscope
 Use light energy
 Enable to see living specimen
 Cheaper
 Easily portable
 Use glass lens
 Have low resolution and
magnification power
 Very simple and any body can
manipulate
 Use colored dye to stain
 colored image
 Wavelength b/n 400-700nm
Electron Microscope
Use beams of electron
Enable to see dead specimens
Expensive
Stationary
Use electromagnetic lens
Have higher resolution and
magnification power
Complex and require experts
to manipulate
Stain contain heavy metal
Black and white image
Wavelength 0.005nm
Electron microscope
What do biologists use in the field?
At the end of the lesson students will
be able to;
Explain what tools biologists use in
the field
Explain the theb function of quadrat,
plastic bags, plant press & data log
What do biologists used in the field?
Biologist do in the field :
Take measurement of abundance of
organisms.
Take samples of the environment for
analysis in the lab.
Collect specimen for identification &
analysis in the lab.
 Con…..
Quadrat; is an ecological sampling unit
consisting of a small area of the ground within
which all species of interest are noted or
measurement taken. They can be used underwater. The
quadrats are
Used to estimate the
abundance of organisms
in an area
Used to show the number
of a particular species changes
across an area.
It is placed randomly on the ground to avoid bias
The organism found inside it are counted and the
number and types are recorded
Biologists use quadrates to show how the number of a
particular species change across the area by using
transect line
The use of quadrates is not confined to sites on land.
They can be used under water also.
 Con……..
Transects lines; can be used to measure how
a species is distributed along a straight line
within a habitat. it can be marked in every 5
or 10 meters.
 Check point
1. assume a 3o m x 50 m site is being surveyed and three
quadrats of a size 1 m x 1 m might be selected at
random. If the population densities of a particular
species at the three quadrats are 10, 12, and 14
individuals per m2, then estimate the total population
densities of the area.
2. Why we close our eyes during sampling a quadrat?
3. Write the components of plant press.
 Con……….
 Plastic bags or jars - used to collect small plants or
parts for short period
Plant press - used to preserve shape or form of the
plant. It can be cardboard or news paper. It is
made up of card
board/wood board/, news
paper and string.
PLANT PRESSING TECHNIQUES
1 .COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS
Collection of botanical material involves two activities—gathering
the Specimens and recording the information.
A.Gathering the Specimens
Collecting equipment:
· Waterproof field notebook to record habitat and location
information.
· Soft lead pencils for writing in rain.
· Topographic maps and location information should include
latitudes and longitudes.
· Small altimeter for measuring elevations.
· Gardening gloves to prevent injury when handling irritating or
thorny specimens.
· Strong plastic bags for storing branches or carrying individually
bagged
Basic techniques
· Select specimens in good condition, free of insect damage, rust, or disease.
· Select plants with mature parts (well-developed leaves, stems, roots, flowers,
and/or fruits or other reproductive structures).
· Select specimens that represent the range of variation in the population, not
just atypical specimens.
· Collect entire plants when possible, even if they are large (the plant can be
divided for pressing).
· Collect at least stems, leaves, and flowers or fruit of herbaceous plants, and
twigs, leaves, and flowers or catkins of trees and shrubs.
· Place all specimens of a single species from one locality into one collection bag.
To keep unpressed plants fresh:
· Expel excess air from large plastic bags and seal.
· Keep collection bags in a cool place, near a stream, in the shade, or in a cooler.
· Sprinkle fresh water into the bags during hot weather, or add a moistened
paper towel.
· Shake off excess moisture or ‘‘blot’’ plants collected in the early morning or
during wet weather.
B.Recording the Data
 1.Date of collection to avoid confusion, write the date in full (August 7, 1991).
2. Name(s) of collector(s)
3. Location information- Provide enough information so that another person can follow the directions to the
general area to observe more specimensof the same species
4.Habitat information
Elevation
Associated vegetation: a short list of other dominant species in the plant community being sampled.
Soil: type of soil encountered.
Moisture regime: the degree of wetness or dryness (xeric, mesic, hygric, hydric).
2 .PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS
The two main steps in preserving floral collections are pressing and drying.
A. Pressing
Pressing equipment-The main piece of equipment is a plant press are:
Corrugated cardboard, newspapers, rope or string
Newspaper separates individual specimens
Cardboard provides support and allow the press be tied tight to keep the specimen flat
.B. Drying - Drying is a crucial step in preserving collected plant material
3. PROCESSING OF SPECIMENS
Processing dried specimens involves three steps:
 · Identification
 · label preparation
 · mounting
 Con…………
Pitfall trap
 Used to catch the crawling or
running on the ground.
 It is small jar or cup sunk
into the ground
 Data logger
 Use to record information
 Theodolite
 an instrument use to measure the
height of trees or of slopes in an area
 Con………….
A flow meter
 use to measure the rate
of flow of water

GPS/Global positioning system/

 Use to record position
quickly & extremely accurately.

Field microscope
 Use to investigate
structure of
specimen in the filed ,
whilst still fresh.
 con……….
Ph kit; to measure pH of water or soil
 class activity
1. Discuss with your partner on the activity 1.12 on page
22 and write your answers.
2. Do review questions on page 22.
Learning objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:
Explain how biological science is relevant to food
production, health and disease, conservation, and
control of the population.
Explain the promise of biology in relation to genetic
engineering and biotechnology
The relevance & promises of biological science
At the end of the lesson students will be able to;
 How biological science is relevant to food production,
health & disease, conservation and control of
population.
 Explain the promise of biology in relation to
biotechnology
The relevance & promises of biological
science
Sine biology is life science, biologists try to find
scientific explanations for scientific, non scientific &
other aspects of life.
So, biology has relevance's in almost every aspects of
life. This makes it a pretty big subject.
Library research
Select five questions that biology attempts to answer,
you may choose from your text book page 25. Do some
library research & for each write few lines about what
biologists said about each topic. Do you agree on their
explanation or not. why? Activity 1.14 page 25
Biology and agriculture
Biologists work day and night to solve problems how
to produce extra food for the exponentially growing
population. So, biologists are carrying out researchs in
to how to produce crop plants that;
 Are highly productive
 Are capable of producing crops quickly
 Are resistant to disease & draught
 Will be able to adapted to the new conditions
 Are pesticide, herbicide & fungicide resistant
This is possibily by genetically engineered plants.
 Biology and medicine
Biologists are also able to advices on the way of
reducing rate of population growth.
They can advice on effective methods of contraception
and the need to limit population growth
 Con………….
Biologists research on disease: biologists researches on diseases
to answer questions like;
 What causes a disease?
 How a disease spread?
 How does the body fight against disease?
 How to treat disease?
Biologists are researching on new medicines for lowering
cholesterol level, reducing the risk of heart attacks, preventing
Alzheimer's disease and others.
The work of these biologists is supported by a whole range of
other biologists like;
 Medical lab.technicians,
 Radiographers,
 Medical researchers,
 Drug development researchers
Biology and environment
Biologists preserve the environment: Environmental
biologists seek to prevent the extinction of animals and
plants by developing ways to protect them.
They are actively involved in:
 monitoring the impact of global warming.
 determining the abundance, distribution & change of
organism in area.
 giving advice (warning) for government for endangered
species etc.
 They also study ecological biodiversity, genetics,
climate change, soil erosion, human encroachment and
pollution and their effects on the Earth's ecosystems.
What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms or
biological substances such as enzymes, and/or genes for
industrial processes to manufacture products useful to
people, such as foods, medicines, and chemicals.
Examples of products in biotechnology:
 The use of microorganisms to make cheese and wine
 Selective breeding of livestock and crops
 Production of antibiotics from microorganisms
 Production of monoclonal antibodies. In,
biotechnology, it is possible to produce organisms that
contain individual genes from another organism.
 
Con………
Terms in biotechnology
A DNA probe; is a piece of DNA (a short sequence of nucleotide bases)
that is used to detect and or select nucleotide sequences that are
complementary to the sequence. It used to localize the genetic disorders,
and to map human and other genomes.
 Genome is the total DNA present in the nucleus of each cell. A technique
aimed at correcting mutated or defected genes that cause human diseases is
called gene therapy.
Forensic Science is any science used for the purposes of the law, and
therefore provides impartial scientific evidence for use in the courts of law.
Bioinformatics is the use of information technology for the study,
collection, and storage of biological data.
Monoclonal antibodies are any of the highly specific antibodies produced
in large quantity by the clones of a single cell.
Stem cells are unspecialized cells that give rise to the different types of
cells that make up the human body
Some promises of biotechnological researches
 cures for genetic diseases.
 treatments for degenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease
and Alzheimer’s disease.
 establishing biologically controlled industrial processes to
manufacture more biological products in the same way as insulin is
now manufactured.
 producing drugs that are ‘tailor-made’ to suit an individual’s needs
 genetically modifying plants to meet a specific need; for example:
 plants that can produce a good yield of a crop in dry conditions
 plants that produce their own insecticide will not need to be sprayed
with chemical insecticides.
 cloning of productive animals and plants
 production of monoclonal antibodies that can deliver a drug to only
those cells that need treatment (for example, cancer cells)
 using stem cells to repair damaged organs and, ultimately, to grow
whole new organs from just a few of a person’s stem cells
The relevance of biotechnology to Ethiopia
Biology is very relevant in Ethiopia considering
 the issues of overpopulation,
 food security,
 environmental well-being,
 health care,
 natural resource conservation,
 biodiversity and others, which the country needs to
address.
 Practical biological knowledge is of special relevance
for Ethiopia and education in biology needs special
attention.
 
 Biology and HIV/AIDS
H I V
Human Immunodeficiency Virus

&
A I D S
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
 Group discussion
Work with your partner and discuss on
A. What is meant by AIDS
B. The transmission modes of AIDS
C. How to prevent AIDS.
Then present your discussion to the class
 Cont…………..
 AIDS
 is short for acquired immune deficiency syndrome .
 Caused by human immuno deficiency virus.
 HIV infects cells in our immune system called T-helper cells
that enable us to fight off other diseases.
 Is usually fatal
 leaves an infected person vulnerable to opportunistic
infections—infection by microbes that take advantage of a
weakened immune system.
 Such infections are usually harmless in healthy people but can
prove life-threatening to people with AIDS.
 HIV transmission
HIV transmission occurs when a person is exposed to
body fluids infected with the virus, such as
 blood
 semen
 vaginal secretions and

 breast milk.

The primary modes of HIV transmission are:-

 sexual relations with an infected person
 sharing hypodermic needles contaminated with

infected blood
 from an infected mother to her baby during

pregnancy, childbirth, or through breast-feeding.

 transfusion of infected blood or blood products
 HIV structure
 HIV belongs to the retrovirus family of viruses
 Retroviruses store their genetic information in molecules
of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 Unlike other RNA viruses, retroviruses use RNA as a
template (master pattern) for forming deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA).
 Reverse transcription, is the exact opposite of the
normal flow of genetic information
in living things, in which DNA
serves as the template
for RNA formation .
DNA RNA PROTIEN
 Classes of viruses
 DNA viruses
 RNA viruses
 Retroviruses
DNA Viruses Contain DNA as a genetic materials
DNA RNA Protein
RNA viruses Contain RNA as a genetic materials
The RNA replicates directly to produce new RNA
RNA RNA Proteins
 Example: HIV Virus cause swine flu
 
Note: RNA is quite unstable & makes frequent mistakes during copying.
This makes them evolve rapidly.
Retroviruses Contain RNA as genetic material but replicate in different way
Carry a unique mode of replication from
RNA DNA RNA Protein
 Fighting against AIDS
There are several methods of combating the spread of a
disease :
 break the transmission path way
 produced drugs that kill the virus or at least stop it from
reproducing.
 Produce a vaccine against the virus
Life cycle of HIV
1. The entry phase.
2. Reverse transcription - Viral genetic materials converted to
DNA
3. Integration - The new DNA enters the host cell DNA
4. Transcription and translation - The new DNA ‘instructs’ the
cell to make more HIV
5. Assembly
Drugs against HIV Life Cycle
 Are anti-retroviral drugs that target different stages
in the life cycle .
 Fusion inhibitors
 Reverse transcriptase inhibitors
 Integrase Inhibitors
 Protease Inhibitors
The combination treatment is called highly active
anti-retroviral therapy ( HAART).
 A vaccine against HIV
A vaccine would provide lasting immunity against reinfection by
HIV.
The problems to develop vaccine includes:
 HIV mutates ( changes) rapidly /high variability/
 Any one infected person can have several different types of HIV in
them.
 Weakened form of HIV were potentially dangerous –the virus always
revert to its infective form.

What can we do in the fight against AIDS?

 Avoid stigma and discrimination
 Restricting the number of sexual partners .
 Men can elect to be circumcised
 Not sharing infected needles.
 Using condoms.
 Abstinence
THE END