Overview of Control System

Design
ERT 321: Process Control & Dynamics
Miss Anis Atikah Ahmad
Email: anis atikah@unimap.edu.my
 OUTLINE
1. Steps in Control System Design
2. The Influence of Process Design on Process
Control
3. Degrees of Freedom for Process Control
4. Selection of Controlled, Manipulated &
Measured Variables
5. Process Safety & Process Control
1. Steps in Control System Design
Formulate the control objectives.

Select controlled, manipulated, and measured

variables.

Choose the control strategy (multiloop control vs.

multivariable control) and the control structure
(e.g., pairing of controlled and manipulated
variables).

Specify controller settings.

 The Influence of Process Design on Process
Control
• Traditionally, process design and control
system design have been separate engineering
activities.
• Thus in the traditional approach, control
system design is not initiated until after the
plant design is well underway and major
pieces of equipment may even have been
ordered.
 The Influence of Process Design on Process
Control
• A more desirable approach is to consider
process dynamics and control issues early in
the plant design.
• This interaction between design and control
has become especially important for modern
processing plants, which tend to have a large
degree of material and energy integration and
tight performance specifications.
 The Influence of Process Design on Process
Control
• Now consider a specific example of how
process design affects process dynamics and
control.
• Since the rise in fuel prices, there has been
considerable interest in reducing energy costs
of distillation trains by heat integration or
thermal coupling of two or more columns.
The Influence of Process Design on Process Control

• This figure compares a

conventional distillation system
with a heat-integrated scheme

• Heat integration reduces energy

costs by allowing the overhead
stream from Column 1 to be
used as the heating medium in
the reboiler for Column 2.

• However, this column

configuration is more difficult to
control for two reasons.
The Influence of Process Design on Process Control

• The process is more highly

interacting because process
upsets in one column affect
the other column.

• The heat integration

configuration has one less
manipulated variable
available for process control
because the reboiler heat
duty for Column 2 can no
longer be independently
manipulated.
 The Influence of Process Design on Process Control

EXAMPLE:
• The process is more highly
• Two alternative interacting because process
temperature control upsets in one column affect
the other column.
schemes for a jacketed
batch reactor are shown
• The heat integration
as follows.
configuration has one less
manipulated variable
• Discuss the relative available for process control
merits of the two because the reboiler heat
duty for Column 2 can no
strategies from a
longer be independently
process operation manipulated.
perspective.
 The Influence of Process Design on Process Control
• The first figure has a serious disadvantage
that the coolant circulation rate varies
and thus the corresponding time delay
for the coolant loop also varies.
• When the time delay varies with the
manipulated variable, a nonlinear
oscillation can develop.
• If the reactor temperature increases, the
controller increases the coolant flow
rate, which reduces the time delay and
causes a sharp temperature decrease.
• When the reactor temperature is too
low, the controller reduces the coolant
flow rate, which increases the time delay
and results in a slow response.
• This nonlinear cycle tends to be repeated.
• The process is more highly
interacting because process
upsets in one column affect
the other column.
• The heat integration
configuration has one less
manipulated variable
available for process control
because the reboiler heat
duty for Column 2 can no
longer be independently
manipulated.
 The Influence of Process Design on Process Control

• The process is more highly

• This control problem can be solved
by making a sample equipment
design change, namely, by adding a
recirculation pump.
• The heat integration
• The recirculation rate and process
time delay are kept constant and thus
are independent of the flow rate of
fresh cooling water.
• The nonlinear oscillations are
eliminated.
interacting because process
upsets in one column affect
the other column.
configuration has one less
manipulated variable
available for process control
because the reboiler heat
duty for Column 2 can no
longer be independently
manipulated.
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control

• The degrees of freedom NF is the number or process variables that must

be specified in order to be able to determine the remaining process
variables.

• If a dynamic model of the process is available, NF can be determined

from the relation:

Where
NV is the total number of process variables, and
NE is the number of independent equations.
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control
• For process control applications, it is very important to determine the
maximum number of process variables that can be independently
controlled, that is, to determine the control degrees of freedom, NFC

Definition:
The control degrees of freedom, NFC, is the number of process
variables (e.g., temperatures, levels, flow rates, compositions)
that can be independently controlled.

• In order to make a clear distinction between NF and NFC, we will refer to

NF as the model degrees of freedom and NFC as the control degrees of
freedom.
• Note that NF and NFC are related by the following equation,
is the number of disturbance
variables
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control
• General Rule.

For many practical control problems, the control degrees

of freedom NFC is equal to the number of independent
material and energy streams that can be manipulated.
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Example 1
Determine NF and NFC for the steam-heated, stirred-tank system
modelled by the following equations:

Assume that only the steam pressure Ps can be manipulated.

 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Example 1
In order to calculate NF, we need to determine NV and NE

The dynamic model in the equations contains three equations (NE = 3)

and six process variables (NV = 6): Ts, Ps, w, Ti, T, and Tw

[1]

[2]

[3]

Since thus, NF = 6 – 3 = 3.
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Example 1
If the feed temperature, Ti and mass flow rate, w are considerable to
be disturbance variables, ND = 2
Since

Thus NFC = 1

It would be reasonable to use this single degree of freedom to control

temperature, T by manipulating steam pressure, Ps
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Example 2
A conventional distillation column with a single feed stream & two product
streams is shown in the following figure. Determine the control degrees of
freedom, NFC and identify the process variables that can be manipulated and
controlled in typical control problems.
Since

Thus NFC = 1
temperature, T by manipulating steam pressure, Ps
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Example 2
For a typical distillation column, five variables can be manipulated: product
flowrates, B and D, reflux ratio, R, coolant flow rate qc, and heating medium
flow rate qh . Thus, according to general rule, Thus NFC =5
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Example 2
Five output variables could be selected as controlled variables: xD, xB , hB, hD
and P.
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Effect of Feedback Control

Case 1. The set point is constant, or only adjusted manually on an

infrequent basis.

For this situation, ysp is considered to be a parameter instead of a variable.

Introduction of the control law adds one equation but no new variables
because u and y are already included in the process model.

Thus, NE increases by one, NV is unchanged, and NF and NFC decrease by

one.
 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control:
Effect of Feedback Control

Case 2. The set point is adjusted frequently by a higher level controller.

The set point is now considered to be a variable. Consequently, the

introduction of the control law adds one new equation and one new
variable, ysp.
From the equations,

NF and NFC do not change.

Selection of Controlled, Manipulated & Measured
Variables
1. Selection of controlled variables

Guideline 1.
All variables that are not self-regulating (output variable that exhibits
an unbounded response after sustained disturbance) must be
controlled.

Guideline 2.
Choose output variables that must be kept within equipment and
operating constraints (e.g., temperatures, pressures, and
compositions) – originate from safety, environmental & operating
requirements.
 Selection of Controlled, Manipulated &
Measured Variables
Guideline 3.
Select output variables that are a direct measure of product quality (e.g.,
composition) or that strongly affect it (e.g., temperature or pressure).

Guideline 4.
Choose output variables that seriously interact with other controlled variables.
Eg: steam pressure header that supplies steam to downstream unit. If the supply
pressure is not well regulated, it can act as a significant disturbance to the
downstream units.

Guideline 5.
Choose output variables that have favorable dynamic and static characteristics.
(low time delay, sensitive to MV).
 Selection of Controlled, Manipulated &
Measured Variables

2. Selection of manipulated variables

Guideline 6
Select inputs that have large effects on controlled variables. Eg: if a distillation column has a
reflux ratio of 5, it is much easier to control reflux drum by manipulating the reflux flow rather
than the distillate flowrate.

Guideline 7
Choose inputs that rapidly affect the controlled variables. Rapid effect will reduce any time delay
and time constant will be small.
 Selection of Controlled, Manipulated &
Measured Variables
2. Selection of manipulated variables

Guideline 8
The manipulated variables should affect the controlled variables directly rather
than indirectly. Eg: it is preferable to throttle the steam flow to heat exchanger rather than the
condensate flow.

Guideline 9
Avoid recycling of disturbance. It is preferable not to manipulate an inlet stream or
recycle stream, because disturbance tend to be propagated forward or recycled back
to the process.
This can be avoided by manipulating a utility stream to absorb disturbances
or an exit stream that allows the disturbances to be passed downstream, provided that the
exit stream changes do not unduly upset downstream process units.
 Selection of Controlled, Manipulated &
Measured Variables

2. Selection of measured variables

Guideline 10.
Reliable, accurate measurements are essential for good control.

Guideline 11.
Select measurement points that have an adequate degree of sensitivity.

Guideline 12.
Select measurement points that minimize time delays and time constants.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Process safety is considered at various stages in the lifetime of a process:

1. An initial safety analysis is performed during the preliminary process

design.

2. A very thorough safety review is conducted during the final stage of the
process design using techniques such as hazard and operability (HAZOP)
studies, failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), and fault tree analysis.

3. After plant operation begins, HAZOP studies are conducted on a periodic

basis in order to identify and eliminate potential hazards.

4. Many companies require that any proposed plant change or change in

operating conditions require formal approval via a Management of Change
process that considers the potential impact of the change on the safety,
environment, and health of the workers and the nearby communities.
- Proposed changes may require governmental approval,
 Process Safety & Process Control
Process safety is considered at various stages in the lifetime of a process (cont.)

5. After a serious accident or plant “incident”, a thorough review is conducted to

determine its cause and to assess responsibility.
 Process Safety & Process Control
The role of the basic process control system

Multiple Protection Layers:

Emergency
shutdown (ESD)
Safety Interlock
Relief devices, System (SIS)
dikes
 Process Safety & Process Control

Multiple Protection Layers:

• The protection layers are shown in the order of activation that occurs as a
plant incident develops.
• In the inner layer, the process design itself provides the first level of
protection.
• The next two layers consist of the basic process control system (BPCS)
augmented with two levels of alarms and operator supervision or
intervention.
• An alarm indicates that a measurement has exceeded its specified limits and
may require operator action.
 Process Safety & Process Control

Multiple Protection Layers:

• The fourth layer consists of a safety interlock system (SIS) that is also referred
to as a safety instrumented system or as an emergency shutdown (ESD)
system.

• The SIS automatically takes corrective action when the process and BPCS
layers are unable to handle an emergency. For example, the SIS could
automatically turn off the reactant pumps after a high temperature alarm
occurs for a chemical reactor.
 Process Safety & Process Control
The role of the basic process control system

Multiple Protection Layers:

• Relief devices such as rupture discs and relief valves provide physical
protection by venting a gas or vapor if over-pressurization occurs.
• As a last resort, dikes are located around process units and storage tanks to
contain liquid spills and protect the surrounding community from the spill.
• Emergency response plans are used to address emergency situations and to
inform the community.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Process alarms

Types of alarms:
• Type 1 Alarm: Equipment status alarm.
Indicates equipment status, for example, whether a pump is on or off, or whether a motor is
running or stopped.

• Type 2 Alarm: Abnormal measurement alarm.

Indicates that a measurement is outside of specified limits.

• Type 3 Alarm: An alarm switch without its own sensor.

These alarms are directly activated by the process, rather than by a sensor signal.
Used for situations where it is not necessary to know the actual value of the process varaiable,
only whether it is above (or below) a specified limit.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Process alarms
•In Type 2 alarm system, the flow
sensor/ transmitter (FT) signal is
sent to both a flow controller (FC)
and a flow switch (FSL – Flow
Switch Low).

•When the measurement is below

the specified low limit, the flow
switch sends a signal to an alarm
which activates an annunciator in
the control room (FAL – Flow
Alarm Low).

•For Type 3 alarm system, the flow

switch is self actuated & thus does
not require a signal from a flow
sensor/transmitter.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Process alarms

Types of alarms:
• Type 4 Alarm: An alarm switch with its own sensor
A type 4 alarm system has its own sensor that serves as a backup in case the regular sensor fails.

• Type 5 Alarm: Automatic Shutdown or Startup System.

These important and widely used in Safety Interlock Systems.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Safety Interlock System (SIS)

• It is important that the SIS function independently of the basic process

control system (BPCS); otherwise, emergency protection will be unavailable
during periods when the BPCS is not operating (e.g. due to a malfunction or
power failure).
• Thus the SIS should be physically separated from the BPCS and have its own
sensors and actuators.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Safety Interlock System (SIS)
•For the liquid storage
system, the liquid level
must stay above a minimum
value in order to
avoid pump damage such as
cavitation.

•If the level drops below the

specified limit, the low level
switch (LSL) triggers both an
alarm (LAL) and a solenoid
(S), which acts as a relay and
turns the pump off.
 Process Safety & Process Control
Safety Interlock System (SIS)
• For the gas storage system, the
solenoid operated valve is
normally closed.

•But if the pressure of the

hydrocarbon gas in the
storage tank exceeds a specified
limit, the high pressure switch
(PSH) activates an alarm (PAH)
and causes the valve to open fully,
thus reducing the pressure in the
tank.

• For interlock and other safety

systems, a switch can be replaced
by a transmitter if the
measurement is required (more
reliable).