CHEMISTRY-11

CHAPTER -2
STRUCTURE OF
ATOM
HAKIMUDDIN
PHALASIYA
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Atoms consists of Electron, proton and
Neutrons. We will see how these particles
were discovered
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON – DISCHARGED TUBE
EXPERIMENT
• William Crook studied the conduction of electricity through a gas
at low pressure.
• In the experiment the electrical discharge tube is filled with gas at
low pressure & high voltage.
• When high voltage is applied across the electronic current start
flowing through stream of parts moving in the tube from cathode
(-) to anode (+). These rays are known as cathode and anode rays.
It was concluded from the experiment that
electron are basic constituent of matter
• Properties of Cathode rays:-
• They travel in a straight line.
• They start from cathode and move towards anode.
• These rays are not visible, but their behavior can be observed with fluorescent material which glow when hit by them
• In absence of electrical or magnetic field cathode rays travel in straight lines
• In presence of electrical or magnetic field, behavior of cathode rays is like that shown by negatively charged particles
suggesting that cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles called electrons
• The characteristics of cathode ray do not depend upon material of electrode and not of gas.
DETERMINATION OF RATIO: - (CHARGE MASS RATIO)
• J. J. Thomson firstly determined Ratio for electrons.
• The subjected beam of electrons/ cathode ray to
influence electric and magnetic field. These were
adding perpendicular to each other as well as the path
followed by electron.
• J. J. Thomson carry out accurate measurements for
the deflections shown by electrons. he determines the
value = 1.78 1011 coulomb per kg.

• Charge on Electron
Millikan devised a method known as oil dropped experiment, to determine the charge on electron charge on e =-
1.6 X 10-19  coulomb

• Mass of e(me) =     9.1 X 10-31  kg

DISCOVERY OF PROTONS- ANODE RAYS
• Goldstein modified discharge tube. On reducing pressure, he observed new type of rays moving in opp.
direction of cathode ray. These were named as anode rays or canal rays
• Properties of anode rays:-
• The value of positive charge on particles depends on nature of gas in discharge tube.
• The ratio depends on gas.
• Sum of positively charged particles carry multiple of fundamental unit of electrical charge.
• These rays travel in straight line.
• On applying electric field these rays get deflected towards –ve electrode

PROTON:-
The smallest & lightest +ve ion H+; charge = 1.6 X 10-19 coulomb ;
Mass of proton = 1.6 X 10-27 kg.
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON:-
• It was discovered by Chadwick.
• It is a neutral particle of atom.
• It is present in the nucleus of atom.
• By the bombardment of thin sheets of beryllium with fast moving α particles he observed that highly
penetrating rays consist of neutral particles known as neutrons.
MODEL OF ATOMS
Properties of Fundamental Particles
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON:-
• It was discovered by Chadwick.
• It is a neutral particle of atom.
• It is present in the nucleus of atom.
• By the bombardment of thin sheets of beryllium with fast moving α particles he observed that highly
penetrating rays consist of neutral particles known as neutrons.
ATOMIC MODELS OF ATOM

J.J THOMSON PLUM PUDDING MODEL

In 1904, the attempt to explain structure of Atom was done by J.J Thomson.
According to Thomson :Atom is positively charged sphere in which few negative
charges are scattered at certain places like plums in pudding or cherries in ice
creams.

Limitation of this model: 

However, this model failed. The reason about failure was as it wasn’t possible that
few negative charges remain scattered in the positive sphere. As we know,
opposite charges attract each other. So, these negative charges would have been
neutralized. They can’t remain scattered. However, this couldn’t be explained by
Thomson therefore the model failed.
 ATOMIC MODELS OF ATOM

RUTHERFORD MODEL OF ATOM:-

Experiment: -
He bombarded thin gold foil by fast moving α particles. The thin gold foil
had Zinc sulphide screen around it. So, wherever α particles struck the
screen a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.

ORSERVATION:-
• Most of the particles passed straight through the film.
• Few particles deflected at some angle.
• Very few deflected back.

CONCUSION:-
• Most of the space in the atom is empty.
• the +ve charge is concentrated in a very small volume that repelled &
deflected a few alpha particles. This small portion of atom is known as
nucleus
• The volume of nucleus is very small as compared to volume of atom.
So, According To Rutherford ,structure of an atom is like solar system.  He said,
• Atom is electrically neutral.
• Nucleus is in center.
• In which protons & neutrons are present.
• Outside nucleus electrons revolve like planets revolve around sun.
• He said, atom is made of two parts: nucleus and extra nuclear part .
• In Nucleus, positive charge is present and in extra nuclear part electrons are present as shown in figure:
• Proton -> (+)vely charged
• Electron -> (-)vely charged
• Neutron -> No charge

Limitation : he failed to explain the stability of an atom”.

• According To Electromagnetic theory, a charged particle revolving in circular path continuously emits energy
and shorten its path.
• As we know, Electrons are also a charged particle revolving in circular path. So, they should also emit energy
and shorten its path .As a result, they should finally fall into nucleus. But this doesn’t happen.
•Solved Examples
•Question 1
Calculate no. of electrons which will weight together 1 gm.
Solution
Mass of e- = 9.1 × 10-31 kg =9.1 × 10-28 g
1 electron = 9.1 × 10-28 g
1 gm = 1/9.1 × 10-28 electrons
= 1.09 × 1027 electrons

Question 2
Calculate mass and charge of 1 mole of electrons
Solution
1 mole of electron = 6.022 × 1022
So, their mass = 9.1 × 10-31 × 6.022 × 1022 = 6.1022 × 10-7 kg.
Charge in 1 electron = 1.6 × 10-19 Columnb.
Therefore,
Charge on 1 mole electron = 1.6 × 10-19 × 6.022 × 1022 = 9.6353 × 104 C

Question 3
Which of the following conclusions could not be derived from Rutherford's α -particle
scattering experiment?
(i) Most of the space in the atom is empty.
(ii) The radius of the atom is about 10−1010−10 m while that of nucleus is 10−1510−15 m.
(iii) Electrons move in a circular path of fixed energy called orbits.
(iv) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Solution
(ii)
• Some definitions were also given related to
atom:
• Atomic number: It is equal to number of
protons in an atom .It is represented by ‘Z’and
is written as subscript.
• Atomic Mass: It is equal to number of
nucleons, or we can say sum of protons and
neutrons in nucleus of an atom. It is
represented as ‘A’ and is written as superscript.
• Representation of atom of an element
• It is the method of representation of element
by specifying its symbol, atomic number and
mass number .The rule involved is  writing
symbol and specifying its atomic number as
subscript and mass number as superscript.
ISOTOPES, ISOBARS, ISOELECTRONICAND ISOTONES:
ISOTOP
ES
Isotopes is defined as Species having same atomic number but different atomic mass number
Difference between the isotopes is due to the presence of different number of neutrons present in the nucleus
Example - Isotopes of Hydrogen
99.985% of hydrogen atoms contain only one proton called protium . 0.015% contains two other isotopes deuterium &
tritium
Isotopes of Hydrogen
tritium is radioactive in nature.

Chemical properties of atoms are controlled by the number of electrons. Number of neutrons present in the nucleus have
very little effect on the chemical properties of an element. So, all the isotopes of a given element show same chemical
behavior.
Isotopes of the elements have the naming convention of Element- except for hydrogen where specific names is given to
all the isotopes
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ISOBARS & ISOTOPES
ISOTONES
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ISOTOPES, ISOBARS &
ISOTONES
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT: DEVELOPMENT LEADING TO BOHR’S MODEL

There were so many factors, phenomenon that lead to the failure of Rutherford model:

• Dual nature of matter

• Atomic spectra

But before studying Bohr model, we need to learn electromagnetic radiations. Newton said the corpuscles
of light possess wave nature of light.
It was able to explain reflection, refraction etc. But failed to explain phenomenon of interface or diffraction.
So, particle nature of light was considered.

Let us study about dual nature.

1. It is electromagnetic theory, which was given by Huygens. This proved wave like character of Light and
tells us about wave motion. Wave motion is like if you throw stones, you will see a ripple that is wave.
2. Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiations :There were two important phenomenon that couldn’t be
explained by considering Light with  wave character:
The phenomenon is:
• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric effect
1. ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY:-

Important relationship between Speed of light,

wavelength and Frequency is given by

C = νλ
Here C = 3 X108 m/s. = Light of speed
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM-

When magnetic radiation are arranged in order

of increasing wavelength or decreasing
frequencies, the complete spectrum obtained is
known as electromagnetic spectrum.
Visible region is from 400 nm to 150 nm.
Limitations of Electromagnetic wave theory:-

• This theory doesn’t explain the phenomenon

of photoelectric effect.
• It doesn’t explain of black body radiation.
• It doesn’t explain line spectrum of atom with
respect to hydrogen.
•Question 1 
Yellow light emitted from sodium lamp have wavelength 580 nm. Calculate Frequency and Wave
Number
Solution
Given: Wavelength = 580 nm
= 580 X 10-9   m
C = 3 X108 m/s
As,   C = ν λ
 ν = λ/C = 580 X 10-9   / 3 X108
=5.5 X 1014 /sec

Question 2
calculate the frequency of light having wavelength 0.05 A 0
•Solution
Given:
Wavelength = 0.05 A0= .05 × 10-10 m
Now, C = νλ
ν =C/λ
=3 × 108/ .05 × 10-10
=6 × 1019 /sec

Question 3
Calculate wavelength, frequency and wave no. of wave whose time period is 2 × 10 -10 s
Solution
time period =2 × 10-10 s
(i) Frequency= 1/ T = 1/2 × 10-10 = .5 × 1010 sec-1
(ii) C = νλ
λ= c /ν = 3 × 108/.5 × 109=6 X 10-1 m
(iii) Now wave no. = 1/λ
= 16.667 m-1 (approx.)
2. BLACK BODY RADIATION AND
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiations :There were two important
phenomenon that couldn’t be explained by considering Light with  wave character:
The phenomenon is:
• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric effect
Let's first study about the nature of these phenomenon:
• Black body radiation: Black body is defined as perfect emitter and absorber
of light.
For example, whenever we heat an Iron ball like objects, on heating they become
first Red, then Orange, then Yellow and at very high temperature they become
White.
According to the electromagnetic theory, the energy is emitted or absorbed
continuously. So, the radiations emitted may vary in intensity, but should have same
colour. The change in color shows, that wavelength also changes .This indicates
non continuous flow of energy. So, it couldn’t be explained by electromagnetic
theory. This phenomenon shows, that if we keep on heating the light that it emits. It
will show changes in wavelength. That means the wavelength keeps on decreasing
but after White there is no further change.
Photoelectric effect:
It is the ejection of electrons from metal surface when light of suitable wavelength
strikes the metal surface.
The apparatus set to demonstrate this effect is given below:
To check the current flow, the ammeter is introduced in the circuit. The following
observations were noticed:
Light of suitable frequency can only eject electrons. Every metal surface has a set
value of frequency that can cause ejection and that corresponding frequency is called
threshold frequency (vo).
Number of electrons ejected is directly proportional to intensity of light.
Kinetic energy of electron is directly proportional to frequency of light that strikes the
surface.
The graphs drawn below shows the above observations:

So, these two-phenomenon Black body and Photoelectric effect couldn’t

explain, considering light as a wave. To explain these two phenomena a new
concept and new theory was put forward. According to which, light was
supposed to possess a particle like character.
Planck's Theory

Planck was able explain the phenomenon of black body radiation by assumption that absorption and
emmission of radiation arises from oscillator i.e., atoms in the wall of black body. Their frequency of
oscillation is changed by interaction with oscilators of electromagnetic radiation
This theory has following traits: -
(a) The radiation energy emitted or observed in the form of small packets of energy(in discrete quantities
and not in a continuous manner). Such packets are known as quantum or photon.
(b) Energy of each photon is directly proportional to frequency of radiation.

                         
Where ‘h’ is planck’s constant.

Quantization Of Energy
•The restriction of any property to discrete values is called quantization.
•Planck's Quantization can be understood by comparing it to person standing on a staircase. A person can stand
on any step of a staircase, but it is not possible for him/her to stand in between the two steps. The energy can
take any one of the values from the following set but cannot take on any values between them.
E=0,hν,2hν,3hν....nhν.....E=0,hν,2hν,3hν....nhν.....
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT (2 NOTES)
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT- 2 NOTES
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
EMISSION AND ABSORBTION SPECTRA
Atomic spectra: Absorption and Emission spectra.

This is the phenomenon that gave serious blow to Rutherford model.It can be defined as:
‘splitting of light’ into various colours or colour bands is called spectra.”

When we see VIBGYOR the Violet colour merges into another and likewise other color merges
into another.

So, in that case:

Where one-colour merges into another and there is no definite boundaries, that spectra is
called continuous spectra.
If we study, it for atoms the spectra obtained is discontinuous spectra.
The study of spectra is called spectroscopy
EMISSION AND ABSORBTION SPECTRA

Atomic spectra are of two types

• Emission spectra
• Absorption spectra

• Emission spectra: It is obtained when emitted light is analyzed.The light is emitted when
an atom is heated, or electric current is passed.These are also referred as finger prints of
atoms.
• Absorption Spectra: When we analyze with spectrometer the spectra obtained is
discontinuous. When white light is passed through the sample it absorbs few radiations
and then transmitted light is analyzed.
EMISSION AND ABSORBTION SPECTRA

Atomic spectra are of two types

• Emission spectra
• Absorption spectra

• Emission spectra: It is obtained when emitted light is analyzed.The light is emitted when
an atom is heated, or electric current is passed.These are also referred as finger prints of
atoms.
• Absorption Spectra: When we analyze with spectrometer the spectra obtained is
discontinuous. When white light is passed through the sample it absorbs few radiations
and then transmitted light is analyzed.
EMISSION AND ABSORBTION SPECTRA
Emission spectra of hydrogen

• The hydrogen gas ,at low pressure is taken

in the tube.
• Then light emitted by it was examined
• It was noticed that spectra obtained
consist of large number of closely spaced
lines which falls in different regions as
shown:
Problem:

Question 1: Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line obtained in the spectrum of Li2+ ion when the
transition takes place between two levels whose sum is 4 and the difference is 2?
BOHR’S
THEORY
•According to Bohr:
• Atom is electrically neutral i.e. number of
Protons = number of Electrons.
• In center of an atom, a dense body called
Nucleus is present.
• In Nucleus, Protons and Neutrons are
present.
• P = +ve
• N = no charge.
• Outside nucleus, shells or energy levels
designated as K, L, M, N ----so on are
present.
• In shells Electrons revolve
• E = -vely charged
• Each shell has fixed amount of energy
therefore they are called as stationary
states or energy levels.
BOHR’S
THEORY
• The energy of electron is quantized.
• Only those orbits are permitted in which angular
momentum of electron is integral multiple of
h/2π.
• The electron in its ground state neither absorb or
emit energy that is it keeps on revolving in orbit
without losing any energy.
• Energy is emitted or absorbed only when electron
jumps from its lower state to higher state called as
excited state .The excited state being unstable,
electron returns to its ground state and in doing so
it emit the absorbed energy equal to:
• E=E2-E1
BOHR’S
THEORY
• The energy of electron is quantized.
• Only those orbits are permitted in which angular
momentum of electron is integral multiple of
h/2π.
• The electron in its ground state neither absorb or
emit energy that is it keeps on revolving in orbit
without losing any energy.
• Energy is emitted or absorbed only when electron
jumps from its lower state to higher state called as
excited state .The excited state being unstable,
electron returns to its ground state and in doing so
it emit the absorbed energy equal to:
• E=E2-E1
EXPLANATION OF HYDROGEN SPECTRA

According to Bohr,
• When energy is supplied to atoms of hydrogen, the electron from lower energy gets excited to higher energy level.
• The excited state being unstable, it jumps back to its original state that is ground state.
• Some electrons move to their ground state in one jump, some in multiple jumps. Each jump corresponds to line in a
spectrum.
• As we know the gas in tube consists of many hydrogen atoms.
• Therefore, each electron on getting energy gets excited.
• On returning to the ground state, they either move in single jump or multiple jump.
• This is the reason that we get so many lines in different regions in hydrogen spectrum.
• The wavelength emitted by them can be calculated as:
LIMITATIONS OF BOHR MODEL OF AN ATOM:

• Bohr model failed to explain the line spectra of multi-electron atoms.

• He couldn’t explain splitting of line in the magnetic field (Zeeman effect)
and in electric field (stark effect).
• He failed to explain three-dimensional model of an atom.
• He was unable to explain the shapes of molecule.
• He couldn’t explain the dual nature of matter and Heisenberg uncertainty
principle.
• This led to the discovery of Quantum mechanics. Let us first understand the
dual nature of matter and Heisenberg uncertainty principle that couldn’t be
explained by Bohr model.
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM
QUANTUM NUMBERS

They may be defined as a set of four numbers with the help of which we can get
complete information about all the electrons in an atom i.e. location, energy, type of
orbital occupied, shape and orientation of that orbital etc.
The three quantum numbers called as Principal, Azimuthal and Magnetic quantum
number are derived from Schrodinger wave equation. The fourth quantum number
i.e. the Spin quantum number was proposed later on.
The total possible values of m in a given subshell = 2l + 1
Total no. of orbitals in a given shell = n2
n- 2l+1
1
FILLING OF ORBITALS IN AN ATOM
FILLING OF ORBITALS IN AN ATOM

2 He 1s2
10 Ne [He] 2s2 2p6
18 Ar [Ne] 3s2 3p6
Exceptional Configuration of Cr & Cu
 Quantum number worksheet
https://physicscatalyst.com/article/quantum-number-worksheet/
THANK
YOU
HAKIMUDDIN PHALASIYA