AAE 520 Uncertainity and System Response

AAE 520 Experimental Aerodynamics
Measurement Uncertainty
References
Coleman,H.W and Steele,W.G. Experimentation and Uncertainty Analysis for Engineers, John
Wiley & Sons, 1989
Matlab Signal Processing Toolbox Manual
LabView Manual
Software
Matlab
LabView
Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Generic Transducer System
P h y s ic a l In p u t S ig n a l
T ran s d u c er C ir c u it
P ro p e rty C o n d it io n e r
T r a n s m is s io n
P r o c e s s in g D is p la y
Areas of Concern
•.Accuracy
•.Static Sensitivity
•.Frequency Response
•.Loading (Impedance Matching)
“degree of goodness”
Anyone comparing results of a mathematical model with experimental data (and perhaps also
with the results of other mathematical models) should certainly consider the "degree of goodness"
of the data when drawing conclusions based on the comparisons. In Figure a the results of two
different mathematical models are compared with each other and with a set of experimental data.
In Figure b the same information is presented, but a range representing the likely amount of error
in the experimental data has been plotted for each data point.It should be immediately clear that
once the "degree of goodness" of the data is taken into consideration, it is fruitless to argue for
the validity of one model over another based only on how well the results match the data.

Experimental Approach - Questions

1. What question are we trying to answer? (What is the problem?)
2. How accurately do we need to know the answer? (How is the answer to be used?)
3. What physical principles are involved? (What physical laws govern the situation?)
4. What experiment or set of experiments might provide the answer?
5. What variables must be controlled? How well?
6. What quantities must be measured? How accurately?
7. What instrumentation is to be used?
8. How are the data to be acquired, conditioned, and stored?
9. How many data points must be taken? In what order?
10. Can the requirements be satisfied within the budget and time constraints?
11. What techniques of data analysis should be used?
12. What is the most effective and revealing way to present the data?
13. What unanticipated questions are raised by the data?
14. In what manner should the data and results be reported?
(Ref. Coleman and Steel)

Need for Uncertainty Analysis

Is uncertainty analysis always necessary ?
Four types of Experiments
(a) quick-sort
Flow visualization is used to establish the global nature of a flowfield. The visual results are then used to
determine where to place probes.
In development work, one needs to know whether something will work. A fast low cost yes or no answer
is needed.
In such a cases uncertainty analysis is not essential.
(b) report of field test, development test, or acceptance test
(c) report of research
(d) calibration test
No alternative to Uncertainty Analysis in (b),(c) and (d)

Replication Levels
Three different replication levels are
Zeroth Order is described by the following conditions time is frozen; the display of
each instrument is considering to be invariant A single sample is taken.
The values of uncertainty at this level are often assigned "one-half the smallest
scale division" or some similar rule of thumb.
First Order: At this order, time is the only variable; with the experiment running, the
display for each instrument is assumed to vary stochastically about a stationary
mean. The first order uncertainty interval includes the timewise variation of the
display and its interpolation uncertainty. Valid estimates of the mean and standard
deviation are obtained.
N'th Order: At this order, time and the instrument identities are considered to be
variables. For each conceptual replication, each instrument is considered to have
been replaced by another of the same type.
An example is the wind tunnel measurements of aircraft model drag in various
facilities around the world using the same model.

Measurement Error
True Value
NBS Standard True Average 
Bias Error
Systematic Error xk Measured Value
Remains Constant During Test
Estimated Based On Calibration
or judgement Bias Error  Random Error
k
Precision ( Random Error )
Index - Estimate of Standard
Deviation
Total Error
k
k = k
True Value True Value
Unbiased, Precise, Accurate Biased, Precise, Inaccurate
Unbiased, Imprecise, Accurate if N>>1 Biased, Imprecise, Inaccurate

Errors
• Accuracy
– Measure of how close the result of the experiment comes to
the “true” value
• Precision
– Measure of how exactly the result is determined without
reference to the “true” value
• Bias Error
– Reproducible inaccuracy introduced by calibration or
technique. Sometimes this error is correctable
• Random Error
– Indefiniteness of result due to finite precision of experiment.
Measure of fluctuation in result after repeated experimentation

Normal Distribution ( Gaussian or Bell Curve )
The normal distribution is a two parameter family of curves. The first parameter, , is the mean.
The second, , is the standard deviation.
The usual justification for using the normal distribution for modeling is the Central Limit Theorem
which states (roughly) that the sum of independent samples from any distribution with finite mean and
variance converges to the normal distribution as the sample size goes to infinity.
The normal pdf ( probability density function) is: Normal Distribution
( x )2
1 
4.5
y e 2 2 4.0
 2
3.5
3.0
2.5
sigma, 
Y
2.0
normalized so that the area under the curve = 1.0 1.5

Mean
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Parameter Estimation.
A desirable criterion in a statistical estimator is unbiasedness. A statistic is unbiased if the expected
value of the statistic is equal to the parameter being estimated.
Unbiased estimators of the parameters, , the mean, and , the standard deviation are:
x i
estimate of the mean, 
x 1
N [ mean(data) ]
 i
( x  x ) 2
estimate of the standard deviation, 

S 1
N 1 [ std(data) ]

Data Sample
Signal from Hot Wire in a Turbulent Boundary Layer
Output from an A/D Converter (in counts) at Equal Time Intervals
Long Time Record

Short Time Record
1000
980
960
940
920
Amplitude
900
880
860
840
820
800
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time

Estimate of the Probability Density Function

[ hist(data,# of bins) ]
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
850 900 950 1000 1050 1100

Errors in the Estimate of the Mean

• For a normal Distribution
s
  x  t95
N
 - true mean
x - estimate of the mean
s- estimate of the standard deviation
N - number of samples
t95 - 95% confidence interval from Students t distribution
t95 = ~2 for N>20
The notation   12.5  .5.95

Means we are 95% confident that the mean lies
between 12.0 and 13.0
Mean
95% Confidence Intervals
0.20
0.18
0.16 Std. Dev/Mean
s/x 1.0
  x (1  t95
0.14
)
N
0.12
Error
0.10
  x (1  error ) 0.08
.5
0.06
.3
0.04
.2
0.02 .1
0.00 .05
100 1000 10000
Number of Samples

Standard Deviation
95% Confidence Interval
nS 2 nS 2
 2  2
 p1 (n  1)
2
 p2 (n  1)
N
 2 - Chi Square Distributi on
 (x  x)
i
2
For 95% Confidence Interval
S 1
N 1 1
p1  (1  Confidence interval)  .025
2
1
p2  (1  Confidence interval)  .975
2
For n  100
1

 2  ( p  2(n  1)  1)
2
2

Standard Deviation
95% Confidence Interval
1.01
p1= .025
1.00
True Value/Estimated Value
0.99
0.98
0.97
p2= .975
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
100 1000 10000
Number of Samples

Propagation of Errors
General Uncertainty Analysis
Suppose the quantity of interest Q is to be calculated from the measured

xquantities
1 , x2 ,........
by the equation
Q  Q( x1 , x2 ,.......)
 i
If there are variations in the readings, at any instant xiti is andxinot
that is measured. This consequently causes a variation in Q. Ifi 'the
s
are small then by the Taylor's series expansion the calculated Q is given as
dQ dQ
Q *  Q ( x1 , x2 ,.......)  1   2  .........
dx1 dx2
or
dQ dQ
Q  Q *  Q( x1 , x2 ,.......)  1   2  ......
dx1 dx2
Consider that many measurements have been made and Qthat

n
is the deviation for each reading set. It's standard deviation over
many readings is given as
N
1
S Q2 
N 1
 1
(Qn ) 2
Substituting for Q
2
1 N
 dQ dQ 
S Q2 
N 1
 1
(
 dx1
1 
dx2
 2  ...) n 

2
1  dQ  N
dQ dQ N
S Q2   
N  1  dx1 
 1
21  2( )(
dx1 dx2
)  1
1 2  ..........
2 N
 dQ  dQ dQ N
 
dx
 2
  1
22  2( )(
dx2 dx3
)  
1
2 3  ........
 .......... .......... ......... 


If the measurements are independent , then there errors N

will be uncorrelated
and the cross term will be zero. That is in the sums  (1 2 ) n , etc., any
term is as likely to be positive as negative (assuming independent
1
variations)
then these sums tend to zero for large N. Hence
2 2
 dQ  1 N
2  dQ  1 N

S Q  
2

 dx1  N  1
 1  
 dx2  N  1
 22 ......................... 
1 1 
N
1
But S1   2
1 x1
is the standard deviation in the measurement
N 1
. 1
Q
Therefore, the standard deviation in the calculated result is
2 2
 dQ  2  dQ  2 
SQ    S    S
 1  dx  2 ......... 
dx
 1   2 

COMMON SENSE ERROR ANALYSIS

.Examine the data for consistent. No matter how hard one tries, there will always be some data
points that appear to be grossly in error. The data should follow commonsense consistency, and
points that do not appear "proper" should be eliminated. If very many data points fa11 in the
category of "inconsistent," perhaps the entire experimental procedure should be investigated for
gross mistakes or miscalculations.
.Perform a statistical analysis of data where appropriate. A statistical analysis is only appropriate
when measurements are repeated several times. If this is the case, make estimates of such
parameters as standard deviation, etc.
.Estimate the uncertainties in the results. We have discussed uncertainties at length. Hopefully,
these calculations will have been performed in advance, and the investigator will already know
the influence of different variables by the time the final results are obtained.
.Anticipate the results from theory. Before trying to obtain correlations of the experimental data,
the investigator should carefully review the theory appropriate to the subject and try to glean
some information that wi11 indicate the trends the results may take. Important dimensionless
groups, pertinent functional relations, and other information may lead to a fruitful interpretation of
the data.
.Correlate the data. The word "correlate" is subject to misinterpretation. In the context here we
mean that the experimental investigator shou1d make sense of the data in terms of physical
theories or on the basis of previous experimental work in the field. Certainly, the results of the
experiments should be analyzed to show how they conform
(Ref. Holman, to or differ
J. P., ”Experimental from
Methods previous
for Engineers")
Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and
investigations or standards that may be employed for such measurements.Astronautics
Design of experiments
Using Uncertainty Analysis
• The choice of test and data reduction procedures can have an

important impact on the accuracy of the results
• It is important to specify the level of replication - 0th, 1st or Nth
order
• Reliable means for cross-checking and/or externally validating
the results are necessary
• In experiments where data are reduced by computer,
uncertainty analysis can be done by sequential perturbation
using the data reduction program

Other Issues
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Linearity
• Hystersis

Applications of Curve Fitting

•Generate a Calibration Curve
• Removal of measurement noise.
• Filling in missing data points (for example, if one or more measurements were
missed or improperly recorded).
• Interpolation (estimation of data between data points; for example, if the time
between measurements is not small enough).
• Extrapolation (estimation of data beyond data points; for example, if you are
looking for data values before or after the measurements were taken).
• Differentiation of digital data. (For example, if you need to find the derivative of
the data points. The discrete data can be modeled by a polynomial, and the resulting
polynomial equation can be differentiated.)
• Integration of digital data (for example, to find the area under a curve when you
have only the discrete points of the curve).
• To obtain the trajectory of an object based on discrete measurements of its
velocity (first derivative) or acceleration (second derivative).

Method of Least Squares
Straight Line Fit (Regression Analysis) to

y  mx  b
Set of Data Points (N points) xi , yi
Problem - Find m and b
Vertical Deviation d i  yi  y (can be  )
Minimize the Sum of the Squares of the Deviation
N N N
 d   ( yi  y)    yi  (mxi  b)  minimum

2 2 2
i
1 1 1
  N 2   N 2
 d i   0  d i   0
m  1  b  1 

xi , yi
d i  yi  y
y
Uncertainty
y  mx  b N
 i
b 2
d
y  1
x n2

General Curve Fit

Curve fitting analysis is a technique for extracting a set of curve parameters
or coefficients from the data set to obtain a functional description of the
data set. The algorithm that fits a curve to a particular data set is known as
the Least Squares Method. The error is defined as
e( a )   f ( x, a )  y ( x ) 
2
where e(a) is the error, y(x) is the observed data set, f(x,a) is the functional
description of the data set, and a is the set of curve coefficients which best
describes the curve.
To solve this system, you set up and solve the Jacobian system generated
by expanding equation. After you solve the system for a, you can
obtain an estimate of the observed data set for any value of x using the
functional description f(x, a).

4.5
Polynomial Fits 4
Hot Wire Output (volts)

3.5
to Hot Wire Data 3
2.5
1.5
4th Order
1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Velocity (ft/sec)
5.5 5
5 4.5
4.5
4

4
3.5
3.5
3
3
Linear
2.5
2.5
1.5
2
1.5
2nd Order
1 1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Velocity (ft/sec) Velocity (ft/sec)

Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device -- it draws a graph of
an electrical signal. In most applications the graph shows how signals
change over time: the vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the horizontal
(X) axis represents time. The intensity or brightness of the display is
sometimes called the Z axis.
URL for a description of oscilloscope operation

http://www.tek.com/Measurement/App_Notes/XYZs/intro.html

V e r t ic a l P la t e s
H o r iz o n t a l P la t e s
E le c tr o n
B eam
Analog Oscilloscope C R T
S c re e n
V e r t ic a l A m p lif ie r D e la y T im e B a s e
V o lts /D iv L in e A m p lif ie r
I n p u t S ig n a l S w e e p G e n e ra to r
(W a v e fo rm to b e T r ig g e r S a w to o th W a v e fo rm
O b s e rv e d ) T im e / D iv

Digital Oscilloscope
In p u t
A /D C PU
A m p
B u ss
M e m o ry
D /A C R T
In p u t
( T r ig g e r ) C o m p u te r
A /D In te r f a c e
A m p

Data Acquisition (DAQ) Fundamentals
The personal computer

Transducers
Signal conditioning
DAQ hardware
University
Purdue Software - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
C PU
C e n t r a l P r o c e s s in g
Computer U n it
A d d res s D a ta C o n tro l
K e y b o a rd
In p u t D is k
D e v ic e A /D C o n v e rte r
B u ss
M e m o ry
C R T
O u tp u t P r in t e r
D e v ic e D is k
D /A C o n v e rte r
101011
A /D
C o n v e rte r
S a m p le d A n a lo g
I n p u t S ig n a l D ig it a l O u t p u t
B b it s /S a m p le
111
110
D ig it a l 101
O u tp u t 100
011
010
001
000 0 F u ll
1 /2 L S B S c a le
A n a lo g I n p u t

A/D PERFORMANCE SPECS

Resolution describes the smallest standard incremental change in output voltage of a DAC or the
amount of input voltage change required to increment the output of an ADC between one code
change and the next adjacent code change. A converter with n switches can resolve 1 part in 2 n .
The least significant increment is then 2 bn , or one least significant bit (LSB). In contrast, the most
significant bit (MSB) carries a weight of 2 b1 . Resolution applies to DACs and ADCs, and may be
expressed in percent of full scale or in binary bits. For example, an ADC with 12-bit resolution could
resolve 1 part in 2 12 (1 part in 4096) or 0.0244% of full scale. A converter with 10V full scale could
resolve a 2.44mV input change.
Accuracy. An accuracy specification describes the worst case deviation of the
DAC output voltage from a straight line drawn between zero and full scale; it includes all errors.
Quantizing Error ,Gain Error ,Scale Error (full scale error), Hysteresis Error ,Offset Error (zero error) and
Linearity,
Conversion Rate is the speed at which an ADC or DAC can make repetitive data conversions.
Input Impedance of an ADC describes the load placed on the analog source.
Number of Channels

Analog to Digital Converter
12 Bit A/D - Resolution = one part in 2  4096 12
Binary Word - 101100111101

MS LSB
B
Unipolar Mode (0-10 Volts) Volts=10/4096*Icount
Integer
Output Voltage Scale
4095 9.9975 +Full Scale - 1 LSB
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . . Bipolar Mode
1 .0024 1 LSB
0 0 0
-5.0 to 5.0
V=5/2048*(Icount-2048)
Dynamic Response of Measurement Systems
Zero Order System
y  Kx (t )

First Order System
dy
  y  Kx (t )
y  Kx0 (1  e t /  ) dt
y  Kx0 e t / 
Step response Impulse response –
- First Order System First Order System
1 1
  .5
0.9 0.9
 1
0.8 0.8
 2
0.7
Amplitude
0.7
Amplitude
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2  2
 1
0.1 0.1
0
  .5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
t / t /

t /
First Order System

Sinusoidal Response
Kx
y sin(t   )
1   2 2
  tan 1 ( )
Amplitude Decrease and Phase Shift 0
Gain dB
Sinusoidal Response - First Order System -10
1
0.8Input -20
0.6
-30 -1

amplitude
0.4 0 1
10 10 10
0.2
Output 0
0
Phase deg
-0.2 -30
-0.4
-0.6 -60
-0.8 -90
-10 0.5 1
time
1.5 2 2.5 10
-1
 0
10
1
10

Second Order System

d2y dy Step response - Second Order System
2
 2 n   n2 y  K n2 x(t ) 2
dt dt
1.8
 n - natural frequency
1.6
 - damping factor
1.4
Amplitude
1.2
  1 - critical damping - no oscillations
  .7 - for fastest response 1
5% overshoot 0.8
System comes to5% of static value 0.6
in half the time for critically damped 0.4
systems
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20
 nt

Second Order System - Sinusoidal Response

  
 2
KX  n 
x  X sin( t ) y sin( t   )   tan  
1
2 
 2 2
 2
   
1       2   
  
 1     
   n     n     n 
  
Amplitude
(dB)
Phase
(deg)
 / n
Second Order System - Impulse

Response
y  Kx0e  nt sin( 1   2  nt   )
Impulse response - Second Order System
1
0.8
Logarithmic Decrement
0.6 x1 e  nt
  ln( )  ln  n (t  )   n
0.4 x2 e
2
Amplitude
0.2 
0
n 1  2
2
-0.2   2
1 2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0 20 40 60 80 100

1.2 1.2
1 1
A m p litud e R a tio
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter

Removes High Frequency Noise Removes DC and Low Frequency Noise
(Such as 60, 120 Hz)
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Band Pass Stop Band

Filters and Transfer Functions
In general, the z-transform Y(z) of a digital filter’s output y(n) is related to the
z-transform X(z) of the input by:
b(1)  b(2) z 1  ...  b(nb  1) z  nb
Y ( z)  H ( z) X ( z)  1  na
X ( z)
1  a (2) z  ...  a(na  1) z
Filtering with the filter Function
It is simple to work back to a difference equation from the z-transform relation
shown earlier. Assume that a(1) = 1. Move the denominator to the left-hand
side and take the inverse z-transform. In terms of current and past inputs, and
past outputs, y(n) is:
y (n)  b(1) x(n)  b(2) x(n  1)  ..  b(nb  1) x(n  nb)  a(2) y (n  1)  ...  a(nb  1) y (n  na)
This is the standard time-domain representation of a digital filter, computed
starting with y(1) and assuming zero initial conditions. This representation’s
progression is
y (1)  b(1) x(1)
y (2)  b(1) x(2)  b(2) x(1)  a ( 2) y (1)
y (3)  b(1) x(3)  b(2) x(2)  b(3) x(1)  a ( 2) y (2)  a (3) y (3)
1.2
1
 Rp / 20
Elliptic Filter
10 Pass Band Ripple
0.8
Amplitude Ratio
0.6 [b,a]=ellip(5,1,20,.5)
0.4
0.2
10 Rs / 20 Stop Band Ripple
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (Hz)
200
150
100
Phase (degrees)
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (Hz)
1 1 1
0.8 0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6

Magnitude
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2
0 -1 0 1
0 -1 0 1
0 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency Frequency Frequency
Elliptic Filter Bessel Filter Butterworth
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 -1 0 1
0 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency Frequency
Chebyshev I Filter Chebyshev II

Effect of Filter Order

Chebyshev II
N= 5 N= 10
0.8
N= 2
0.6
Magnitude
0.4
0.2
0 -1 0 1
10 10 10
Frequency

Example Signal
Fs = 100;
t = 0:1/Fs:1;
x =.5+ sin(2*pi*t*5)+.25*sin(2*pi*t*40);
% DC plus 5 Hz signal and 40 Hz signal sampled at 100 Hz for 1 sec
2
Total Signal
DC Level 1.5
1 Low Frequency
Amplitude (volts)
Signal
0.5
0 High Frequency
-0.5
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)

1.2
AAE 520 Experimental Aerodynamics 2
Original
A m p li t u d e ( v o lts )
1 1.5
Cheby2
0.8
Recovers 1 Signal
Amplitude Ratio
Low Pass
DC + 3Hz
0.5
Filter
0.6
0
0.4
Filtfilt
-0.5
0.2
-1
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (sec)
Frequency (Hz)
1.2 2
1.5
1
0.8
Cheby2 Recovers 1
Amplitude Ratio
High Pass
40 Hz
0.5
0.6
0
0.4
-0.5
0.2
-1
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (sec)
Frequency (Hz)
1.2 2
1.5
1
Cheby2 1
0.8
Recovers
Amplitude Ratio
0.6
Band Pass 0.5
3Hz
0
0.4
-0.5
0.2 -1
-1.5
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (sec)
Frequency (Hz)
1.2 2
1 1.5
0.8
Recovers 1
Amplitude Ratio
Cheby2
DC + 40Hz
0.6 0.5
0.4 Stop Band 0
-0.5
0.2
-1
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (sec)
Frequency (Hz)

10 Point Averaging Filter
b= 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1
a= 1.0
1 2
0.9
1.5
0.8
0.7
A mplitude Ratio
Amplitude (volts)
1
0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4
0
0.3
0.2
-0.5
0.1
0 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Frequency (Hz) Time (sec)

AAE 520 Uncertainity and System Response

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AAE 520 Experimental Aerodynamics

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Generic Transducer System

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Experimental Approach - Questions

(Ref. Coleman and Steel)

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Need for Uncertainty Analysis

(b) report of field test, development test, or acceptance test

(c) report of research

(d) calibration test

No alternative to Uncertainty Analysis in (b),(c) and (d)

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

True Value True Value

Unbiased, Precise, Accurate Biased, Precise, Inaccurate

Unbiased, Imprecise, Accurate if N>>1 Biased, Imprecise, Inaccurate

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Normal Distribution ( Gaussian or Bell Curve )

The normal pdf ( probability density function) is: Normal Distribution

normalized so that the area under the curve = 1.0 1.5

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

estimate of the standard deviation, 

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Long Time Record

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Estimate of the Probability Density Function

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Errors in the Estimate of the Mean

The notation   12.5  .5.95

0.16 Std. Dev/Mean

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Suppose the quantity of interest Q is to be calculated from the measured

Consider that many measurements have been made and Qthat

 .......... .......... ......... 

If the measurements are independent , then there errors N

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

COMMON SENSE ERROR ANALYSIS

• The choice of test and data reduction procedures can have an

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Applications of Curve Fitting

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Method of Least Squares

Straight Line Fit (Regression Analysis) to

 d   ( yi  y)    yi  (mxi  b)  minimum

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

General Curve Fit

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Hot Wire Output (volts)

to Hot Wire Data 3

Hot Wire Output (volts)

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

URL for a description of oscilloscope operation

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Data Acquisition (DAQ) Fundamentals

The personal computer