Pavement Construction and Design

Lecture # 3rd
Material Characterization
(Subgrade Material) Cont..
 Subgrade Typical Values
Classification CBR MR (psi) Typical Description

Gravels, crushed stone and

sandy soils. GW, GP, GM, SW,
Good ≥ 10 20,000 SP, SM soils falls in this
category.

Clayey gravel and clayey sand,

Fair 5–9 10,000 fine silt soils.  GM, GC, SM, SC
soils falls in this category.

Fine silty sands, clays, silts,

organic soils.  CL, CH, ML, MH,
Poor 3–5 5,000 CM, OL, OH soils falls in this
category.
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION

 Construction Principles

 Construction Equipment

 Construction Processes
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION

 What is SUBGRADE Construction?

 Compaction
Objectives
Factors
Mechanism
Created Fabric and Structure
Effect on Engineering Properties
• Strength
• Stiffness
• Stability
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION

1. Establishment of Grade Line

– Natural Ground (Cut)
– Embankment (Fill)

2. Compaction
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
1. Establishment of Grade Line
o The subgrade line should be established
– to obtain the optimum natural support for the pavement
– consistent with economic utilization of available materials
– traffic requirements
o a . Balancing Cut and Fill: Optimizing subgrade support and
drainage should take precedence over balancing cut and fill.
o b . Ground Water: The subgrade line will be above the flood
plain and a minimum of 2 feet above wet season ground
water level . Where not practicable, provide for permanent
lowering of water table by drainage.
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
o c . Rock: Rock excavation is to be avoided for economic
reasons . Where excavation of rock is unavoidable, undercut
to provide for full depth of base course under surface
courses.
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
2. COMPACTION

PURPOSE:
 In engineering practice the soils at a given site do not often
meet the ideal requirements or the intended purpose.
 They may be weak, highly compressible, or have a higher/lower
permeability than desirable from an engineering or economic
point of view.
 It would seem reasonable in such instances to simply relocate
the structure or facility. However, considerations other than
geotechnical often govern the location of a structure, and the
engineer is forced to design for the site at hand.
 One possibility is to adapt and design according to the
geotechnical conditions at the site.
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
2. COMPACTION

PURPOSE:
 Another possibility is to try to stabilize or improve the
engineering properties of the soils at the site. Depending on the
circumstances, this second approach may be the most
economical solution to the problem.
 SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
• Stabilization Methods are generally classified as:

Mechanical COMPACTION
Physical
Chemical
Thermal
Electrical
 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Clearing & Grubbing Tractor Dozer,
Rooter/Ripper
Excavation Shovels, Dozers,
Draglines, Scrapers
Transportation Scrapers, Trucks,
Dumpers
Spreading Grader, Dozer
Watering Tankers, Sprinklers
Compaction Rollers of Different
Types
 COMPACTION
Objectives of Compaction

 Detrimental settlements can be reduced or prevented.

 Soil strength increases and slope stability can be

improved.

 Bearing capacity of pavement subgrades can be

improved.

 Undesirable volume changes, for example, caused by

frost action, swelling, and shrinkage may be
controlled.
 COMPACTION
 Compaction is a function of four variables:

 Dry Density
 Water Content
 Compactive Effort/Type
 Soil Type
o gradation, presence of clay minerals, etc.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
 The kind of compacting equipment or rollers used on a job
will depend on

 Type of soil to be compacted

 Desired or Targeted Properties

 Equipment is available to apply

 Pressure
 Impact
 Vibration
 Kneading
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
Types

Smooth Wheel
Pneumatic Tyred
Sheep Foot
Tamping Foot
Grid Type

with or without vibrations

 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

• A smooth wheel, or drum,

roller supplies 100% coverage under
the wheel, with ground contact
pressures up to 380 kPa (55 psi)
and may be used on all soil types
except rocky soils.

• The most common use for large

smooth wheel rollers is for
– proof-rolling subgrades and
compacting asphalt pavements.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

• The pneumatic, or rubber-

tired roller has about 80% coverage
(80% of the total area is covered by tires)
and tire pressures may be up to about
700 kPa (100 psi).

• Like the smooth wheel roller, the rubber-

tired roller may be used for both
granular and cohesive highway fills,
as well as for earth dam
construction.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

 Sheepsfoot Roller, as its name

implies, has many round or rectangular
shaped protrusions or "feet” attached to a
steel drum. The area of these protrusions
ranges from 30 to 80 cm2 (5 to 12 in.3).
 Because of the 8% to 12% coverage, very
high contact pressures are possible,
ranging from 1400 to 7000 kPa (200 to
1000 psi) depending on the drum size
and whether the drum is filled with water.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
 Sheepsfoot rollers are usually towed in
tandem by crawler tractors or are self-
propelled, as shown in Fig.

 The sheepsfoot roller starts compacting

the soil below the bottom of the foot
(projecting about 150 to 250 mm from
the drum) and works its way up the lift as
the number of passes increases.

 Eventually the roller "walks out" of the

fill as the upper part of the lift is
compacted.

 The sheepsfoot roller is best suited for

Cohesive Soils.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
 Tamping foot Roller
 have approximately 40% coverage and
generate high contact pressures from
1400 to 8400 kPa (200 to 1200 psi),
depending on the size of the roller and
whether the drum is filled for added
weight. The special hinged feet of the
tamping foot roller apply a kneading
action to the soil.
 These rollers compact similarly to the
sheepsfoot in that the roller eventually
"walks out" of a well-compacted lift.

 Tamping fool rollers are best for

compacting fine-grained soils.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

 Another kind of roller is the mesh, or

grid pattern, roller with about 50%
coverage and pressures from 1400 to
6200 kPa (200 to 900 psi)
 The mesh roller is ideally suited for
compacting Rocky Soils,
Gravels, and Sands.
 With high towing speed, the
material is vibrated, crushed,
and impacted.
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

 Several compaction equipment

manufacturers have attached vertical
vibrators to the smooth wheel and
tamping foot rollers so as to more
efficiently densify granular soils.

 Vibrating Drum
 Vibrating Plates and Rammers

 Compaction depth for even the larger

plates is less than 1 meter.
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
 CONTRACTOR’s JOB

 Choice of Compactor
 Minimum Effort Versus Maximum Compaction
 How to Quantify Compaction ?

• Number of Passes
• Speed of Roller
• Frequency (Vibratory Roller)
• Sequence of Rolling
 CONTRACTOR’s JOB

 Choice of Compactor

Depends on ?
 Type of Soil
 Target Density (and/or other Properties)

 Depth of Compaction (lift thickness)

Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures

Equipment-Summary
 Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures
Variables-Vibratory Compaction
There are many variables which control the vibratory
compaction or densification of soils.
Characteristics of the compactor:
(1) Mass, size
(2) Operating frequency and frequency range
Characteristics of the soil:
(1) Initial density
(2) Grain size and shape
(3) Water content
Construction procedures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
(4) Towing speed
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
• Compactive effort
• Field control of
moisture.
• Mixing in the field.

 d  field
R.C.  100%
 d max laboratory
 Design-Construct Procedures

Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the proposed

borrow materials to define the properties required for design.
After the earth structure is designed, the compaction
specifications are written. Field compaction control tests are
specified, and the results of these become the standard for
controlling the project.

From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

 Specifications

(1) End-product specifications

This specification is used for most highways and building
foundation, as long as the contractor is able to obtain the
specified relative compaction , how he obtains it doesn’t matter,
nor does the equipment he uses.
Care the results only !
(2) Method specifications
The type and weight of roller, the number of passes of that roller,
as well as the lift thickness are specified. A maximum allowable
size of material may also be specified.
It is typically used for large compaction project.

From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Determine the Relative Compaction in the Field

Where and When

First, the test site is selected. It should be representative or typical of the
compacted lift and borrow material. Typical specifications call for a new
field test for every 1000 to 3000 m2 or so, or when the borrow material
changes significantly. It is also advisable to make the field test at least
one or maybe two compacted lifts below the already compacted ground
surface, especially when sheep foot rollers are used or in granular soils.

Method
Field control tests, measuring the dry density and water content in the
field can either be destructive or nondestructive.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

 Methods
Destructive Methods (a)
(a) Sand cone
(b) Balloon
(c) Oil (or water) method
(b)
Non Destructive , Nuclear
density meter
(a) Direct transmission (c)
(b) Backscatter
(c) Air gap

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

 Field Compaction
Test

• Sand Cone Apparatus

– Dry mass of the soil is determined
– Volume of the test hole is obtained from the mass
of loose sand required to fill the hole
– Sand is a uniform medium sand with a constant
loose density
– Volume=mass of sand / loose density of sand
– density is calculated
– water content determined
– Study at your own
 Field Compaction Test

Example 3-4 Sand-Cone Apparatus: A sand cone

holds 851.0 g. The loose density of the sand is
1.430 g/cm3
Field Test Results:
Total weight of the soil 639.5 g
Dry weight of the soil 547.9 g
Initial weight of the sand-cone apparatus 4527.8g
final weight of the sand-cone apparatus 3223.9g
 Field Compaction Test

Calculations:
Mass of the sand used 4527.8g-3223.9g = 1303.9g
Mass in test hole 1303.9g-851.0g = 452.9 g
Volume of test hole 452.9 g = 316.7 cm3
1.430 g/cm3
Field dry density 547.9g/316.7 cm3 = 1.730 g/ cm3

Field water content 639.5-547.9 = 16.7%

547.9
CHOICE OF COMPACTOR
 SUBGRADE COMPACTION
• Natural Subgrade
 Compact at Grade Level to a depth of 20 cm
 Compact from the surface (cohesionless soils except silts) .
 Remove, process to desired water content, replace in lifts, and compact .

• Embankment
 Once borrow material has been transported to the fill area, bull-dozers,
front loaders, and motor graders, called blades, spread the material to
the desired layer or lift thickness.
 Lift thickness may range from 150 to 500 mm (6 to 18 in.) or so,
depending on the size and type of compaction equipment and on the
maximum grain size of the fill.
 COMPACTION ACHIEVEMENT
 Most Efficient Water
Content
 COMPACTION ACHIEVEMENT

 NUMBER OF PASSES

 SPEED
 COMPACTION ACHIEVEMENT
COMPACTION DEPTH (Lift Thickness)

 Cohesive Soils
– Compacted By Pressure, Kneading,....

 Cohesionless Soils
– Compacted by Vibrations
 COMPACTION ACHIEVEMENT
• Compaction Depth (Lift Thickness)

• Cohesive Soils
• Depends on
 Pressure
 Impact
 Vibration (if any)
 Initial Density of Soil
 COMPACTION ACHIEVEMENT
• Cohesionless Soils

 Difference Between Compaction Characteristics

 Compaction Pressure

 Vibration Frequency
 Types of Gradations
Well Graded

Gap Graded

Open Graded Fuller’s Curve

Uniform Graded
 TYPES OF GRADATIONS

 Uniformly graded
- Few points of contact
- Poor interlock (shape dependent)
- High permeability
 Well graded
- Good interlock
- Low permeability
 Gap graded
- Only limited sizes
- Good interlock
- Low permeability
 Drainability

• General
– Due consideration to intercept and remove
water before it reaches roadbed soil.
– Detrimental effects on road performance.
Failures caused by ground or seepage flows can
be classified: -
• Piping and erosion failure as a result of water
movement cause soil particles to migrate out of
material.
• Weakening/ Uplifting failure as a result of water
movement cause saturation and flooding of materials
leading to weakening / uplift.
 Drainability

• Controlling Moisture Problems

– Seal Pavement. Seal cracks and joints,
impervious layers, intercepting drains.
– Use Moisture Insensitive Materials. Use granular
material with low % of fines.
– Adequate Drainage. Permanently lower water
table, quick removal once water enters.
• Enhancing Drainage of Road bed Soil

– Installation of transverse slotted drainage

pipes linked to drainage ditches.
– Installing sand drains to the depth of
pervious layer.
– Cutoff blanket at sub grade level- water
moves to drainage ditches.
– Transfer elevation should not be a bathtub.