Unit Two (2) Individual Differences and Personality: Service Excellence

UNIT TWO (2)
Individual Differences and

Personality
Service Excellence
Chapter Outline
• Individual Differences
• Personality
• Perception defined
• Factors influencing perception
• Perceptual errors
• Individual differences
Service Excellence
Individual Differences
• People show substantial individual differences, or

variations in how they respond to the same situation
based on personal characteristics
• Behavior is a function of person interacting with the
environment:
B = f (P x E)
Service Excellence
Individual Differences
• Behavior is therefore determined by the effects of the

individual and the environment on each other
Service Excellence
Personality
The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal

states that determine how an individual reacts to and
interacts with others.
It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that

a person exhibits
Service Excellence
What is Personality
 Personality.
– The overall profile or combination of characteristics that
capture the unique nature of a person as that person

reacts and interacts with others.
– Combines a set of physical and mental characteristics
that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels.

– Predictable relationships are expected between people’s
personalities and their behaviors.
Service Excellence
Determinants of Personality
Heredity
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at

conception. E.g. Physical stature, facial attractiveness,
gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes,
energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that
are generally considered to be either completely or largely
influenced by your parents’ biological, physiological, and
inherent psychological makeup.
Service Excellence
Environmental Factors
Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality

formation are the culture in which we are raised;
our early conditioning;
the norms among our family, friends, and social groups;

and other influences that we experience.
The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role

in shaping our personalities.
Service Excellence
Situational Conditions
A third factor, the situation, influences the effects of

heredity and environment on personality.
An individual’s personality, although generally stable and

consistent, does change in different situations.
More specifically, the demands of different situations call

forth different aspects of an individual’s personality.
Service Excellence
Personality Traits
o Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive,

submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid.
o Those characteristics, when they are exhibited in a large
number of situations, are called personality traits.
o The more consistent the characteristic and the more often
it occurs in different situations, the more important that
trait is in describing the individual.
Service Excellence
MBTI Personality Traits
• The “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator” and “the Big Five

Model, are two methods that have been used to determine
personality traits.
• Personality traits are common across a variety of cultures.
• Our personality traits, by the way, are evaluated

differently by different people. This is partly a function
of perception
Service Excellence
• The MBTI classifies people based on how they prefer to:

o focus their attention
o collect information
o process and evaluate information, and
o orient themselves to the outer world
Service Excellence
• Extraversion/Introversion (E or I). This dimension refers to

how people focus themselves: inside (introversion) or
outside (extraversion).
• Sensing/Intuiting (S or N). This dimension refers to how
people gather information: very systematically (sensing)
or relying on intuition (intuiting).
Service Excellence
• Thinking/Feeling (T or F). This dimension refers to how

people prefer to make decisions: objectively and
impersonally (thinking) or subjectively and
interpersonally (feeling).
• Judging/Perceiving (J or P). This dimension refers to how
people order their daily lives: being decisive and planned
(judging) or spontaneous and flexible (perceiving).
Service Excellence
• INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original

minds and great drive for their own ideas and
purposes.
• They are characterized as skeptical, critical,
independent, determined, and often stubborn.
Service Excellence
• ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical,

analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for
business or mechanics.
• They like to organize and run activities.
Service Excellence
• ENTPs are conceptualizers. They are innovative,

individualistic, versatile, and attracted to
entrepreneurial ideas.
• They tend to be resourceful in solving
challenging problems but may neglect routine
assignments.
Service Excellence
Personality Types: The Big Five Model
An impressive body of research supports the notion that
five basic personality dimensions underlie all others and
include most of the significant variations in human
personality. The Big Five personality factors are as follows:
oExtraversion. This dimension captures a person’s comfort
level with relationships.
oExtraverted individuals are sociable, talkative, and
assertive.
Service Excellence
Agreeableness. This dimension refers to how readily a

person will go along with others. Highly agreeable people
are good-natured, cooperative, warm and trusting.
Conscientiousness. This dimension is a measure of a

person’s reliability. People who score high on
conscientiousness are responsible, dependable, persistent
and achievement-oriented.
Service Excellence
Emotional stability. This dimension taps a person’s ability

to withstand stress.
People high on emotional stability are calm, self-confident,

and secure.
Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses a

person’s range of interests and fascination with novelty.
People high on openness to experience are imaginative,
artistically sensitive, and intellectual.
Service Excellence
Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB
• Locus of Control
Internals: Some people believe that they are in

control of their own destinies.
Other people see themselves as pawns of fate,

believing that what happens to them in their
lives is due to luck or chance- Externals
Service Excellence
A person’s perception of the source of his or her fate is
termed locus of control.
Individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely

to problem solve when they encounter an obstacle while
trying to achieve a goal.
Individuals with an external locus of control are more likely

to see the obstacle as caused by outside forces, and they will
not necessarily know what to do in the face of that obstacle.
Service Excellence
Major Personality Attributes Influencing
OB
• Internals report greater well-being, and this finding

appears to be universal.
• Internals show greater motivation, believe that their
efforts will result in good performance, and get higher
salaries and greater salary increases than externals.
Service Excellence
OB
• Externals are less satisfied with their jobs, have

higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated
from the work setting, and are less involved in
their jobs than are internals, likely because they
feel they have little control over organizational
outcomes.
Service Excellence
OB
Machiavellianism-
An individual high in machiavellianism is highly practical,

maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can
justify means. “If it works, use it” is consistent with a
high-Mach perspective.
Service Excellence
OB
It has been found that high Machs flourish

•when they interact face to face with others rather than
indirectly;
•when the situation has a minimum number of rules and
regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation; and
•when low Machs get distracted by emotional involvement
with details irrelevant to winning.
Service Excellence
•Do high Machs make good employees?
Service Excellence
OB
It depends on:
o the type of job and whether you consider ethical
implications in evaluating performance.
oIn jobs that require bargaining skills (such as labour
negotiation) or that offer substantial rewards for winning
(as in commissioned sales), high Machs will be productive.
Service Excellence
How Do Personalities Differ?
 People with a high-Machiavellian personality:
– Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.
– Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.
– Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or
others’ opinions.
– Are skilled at influencing others.
– Try to exploit loosely structured situations.
– Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in highly
structured situations.
Service Excellence
How Do Personalities Differ?
 People with a low-Machiavellian personality:
– Accept direction imposed by others in loosely
structured situations.
– Work hard to do well in highly structured situations.
– Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.
– Are unlikely to lie or cheat.
Service Excellence
OB
Self-Esteem:
People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike

themselves. This trait is called self-esteem.
Self-esteem is directly related to expectations for success.

High SEs believe that they have the ability to succeed at
work. Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks
in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional
jobs than are people with low self-esteem.
Service Excellence
OB
• Low SEs are more easily influenced by external factors
than are high SEs.
• Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive
evaluations from others.
• As a result, they are more likely than high SEs to seek
approval from others and more prone to conform to the
beliefs and behaviours of those they respect.
Service Excellence
OB
• In managerial positions, low SEs tend to be

concerned with pleasing others and, therefore,
are less likely to take unpopular stands than are
high SEs.
Service Excellence
OB
Self-Monitoring
Some people are better able to pay attention to the external

environment and respond accordingly, a characteristic known as
self-monitoring
Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable ability to

adjust and adapt their behaviour to the situations they are in.
They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave
differently in different situations. High self-monitors are capable
of presenting striking contradictions between their public
personae and their private selves
Service Excellence
OB
Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in the same

way.
They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes

in every situation; hence, there is high behavioural
consistency between who they are and what they do.
Service Excellence
OB
Risk-Taking
High risk-taking managers make more rapid

decisions and use less information in making their
choices than did the low risk-taking managers.
Interestingly, the decision accuracy was the same

for both groups.
Service Excellence
OB
• Type A and Type B Personalities
An individual with a Type A personality is

“aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant
struggle to achieve more and more in less and
less time, and, if required to do so, against the
opposing efforts of other things or other persons
Service Excellence
OB
Type A’s
oAre always moving, walking, and eating rapidly
oFeel impatient with the rate at which most events take place
oStrive to think or do two or more things at once
oCannot cope with leisure time
oAre obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in

terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire
Service Excellence
OB
• Type B’s are “rarely hurried by the desire to obtain a

wildly increasing number of things or participate in an
endless growing series of events in an ever-decreasing
amount of time.”
Service Excellence
Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB
o Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its

accompanying impatience
o Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements
or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by
the situation
o Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their
superiority at any cost
o Can relax without guilt
Service Excellence
OB
Proactive Personality:
People with a proactive personality identify

opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere
until meaningful change occurs.
They create positive change in their environment,

regardless or even in spite of constraints or obstacles
Service Excellence
Eysenck and the Study of Personality types
Eysenck described the four temperaments as follows:
1.Sanguine: a person ‘carefree and full of hope; attributes

great importance to whatever he may be dealing with at
the moment, but may have forgotten about it the next.
2.He is easily fatigued and bored by work but is constantly

engaged in mere games- these carry with them constant
change, and persistence is not his forte’
Service Excellence
• Phlegmatic: a person who displays a lack of emotions,

not laziness; it implies a tendency to be moved neither
quickly or easily but persistently… he is reasonable in
his dealing with other people and usually gets his way
by persisting in his objectives while appearing to give
way to others.
Service Excellence
• Melancholic: a person who will attribute great importance

to everything that concerns them. They discover everywhere
cause for anxiety and notice first of all the difficulties in a
situation, in contradistinction to the sanquine person.
• All this is not so because of moral consideration but because
interaction with others makes him worried, suspicious and
thoughtful. It is for this reason that happiness escapes him
Service Excellence
• Choleric: a person ‘said to be hot headed,’ is quickly roused,
but easily calmed down if his opponent gives in; he is annoyed
without lasting hatred.
• Activity is quick but not persistent.
• He loves appearance, pomp and formality; he is full of pride

and self-love.
• He is miserly, polite but with ceremony; he suffers most
through the refusal of others to fall in with his pretensions. In
one word, the choleric temperament is the least happy because
most likely to call forth opposition to itself
Service Excellence
PERCEPTION
Service Excellence
PERCEPTION
The process by which individuals select, organize, and

interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment.
However, what we perceive can be substantially different

from objective reality.
We often disagree about what is real.
Service Excellence
PERCEPTION
• the process of organizing , interpreting and integrating

external stimuli received through the senses;
• the mental process involved in identifying and
subjectively interpreting objects, concepts and behaviour
• the attainment of awareness, insight and understanding;’
Service Excellence
PERCEPTION
• Perception is the process of interpreting the messages of

our senses to provide order and meaning to the
environment.
Service Excellence
PERCEPTION
• The extent to which an individual’s perception (i.e. the

subjective reality) of the event matches what is truly there
(i.e. objective reality) depends on:
 factors at work in the perceiver,
 such as the individual’s physical health,
 intelligence level,
 degree of open-mindedness, and
 general level of emotional well-being.
Service Excellence
PERCEPTION
• The accuracy of an individual’s perception is greatly
enhanced if he or she has a high degree of self-perception.
• Awareness, and acceptance, of one’s own strengths,

weaknesses and prejudices can lead to a sharper, more
truthful assessment of another’s capacities,
predispositions and future behaviour patterns.
• It is also helpful if the perceiver is capable of exercising

judgments in a relatively impartial, objective way
Service Excellence
Perception Process
It occurs in five stages and they are:

• stimulation (an action of various agents on nerves),
• organization (a social unit of people that is structured
and managed to meet a need),
• interpretation-evaluation (ability to reveal meanings and
relationships society),
• memory (ability to store and recall information) and
• recall (retrieval of information from the past).
Service Excellence
Importance of Studying Perception
Simply because people’s behaviour is based on

their perception of what reality is, not on reality
itself.
The world as it is perceived is the world that is

behaviourally important.
Service Excellence
Factors Affecting Perception
• A number of factors affect perception.
• These factors can be found in the perceiver, in

the object or target being perceived, or in the
context of the situation in which the perception
is made.
Service Excellence
Characteristics of the Perceiver
• Attitudes
• Moods
• Motives
• Self- concept
• Interest
• Cognitive Structure
• Expectations
Service Excellence
Characteristics of the Target
Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of

others.
Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more
likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking
individuals.
Motions, sound, size and other attributes of a target
shape the way we see it.
Service Excellence
Characteristics of the Target
• Verbal Communication from targets also affects our

perception of them.
• Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of
information about the target.
• The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions,
body movements, and posture all in a attempt to form an
impression of the target.
Service Excellence
Characteristics of the Situation
• The situation in which the interaction between

the perceiver and the target takes place, has an
influence on the perceiver's impression of the
target.
• The context in which we see objects or events
• The strength of the situational cues also affects
social perception.
Service Excellence
Perceptual Errors
• Some of the errors that distort the perception process

include:
• attribution theory
• selective perception
• the halo effect
• contrast effects
• Projection
• stereotyping.
Service Excellence
Attribution Theory
• Explains how we judge people differently, depending on

the cause we attribute to a given behaviour
• The theory suggests that when we observe an
individual’s behaviour, we try to determine whether the
individual is responsible for the behaviour (the cause is
internal), or whether something outside the individual
caused the behaviour (the cause is external).
Service Excellence
Perceptual Errors-Attribution Theory
• Internally caused behaviour is believed to be under the

personal control of the individual; that is, the person
chooses to engage in the behaviour.
• Externally caused behaviour is believed to result from
outside causes that is, the person does not have control
over his or her actions and is forced into the behaviour by
the situation.
Service Excellence
Rules for Determining Attribution
• Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual acts

similarly across a variety of situations
• If the behaviour is unusual, the observer is likely to make

an external attribution.
• If this action is not unusual, the observer will probably

judge it as internally caused
Service Excellence
• Consensus considers how an individual’s

behaviour compares with others in the same
situation.
• If everyone who is faced with a similar

situation responds in the same way, we can say
the behaviour shows consensus.
Service Excellence
• When consensus is high, an external attribution

is given to an individual’s behaviour.
• But if an individual’s behaviour is different from
everyone else’s, you would conclude the cause
for that individual’s behaviour was internal.
Service Excellence
Consistency: reflects how consistently a person

engages in some behaviour over time.
We tend to perceive behaviour that a person

performs regularly as indicative of his or her
true motives.
Service Excellence
Biases in Attribution
• Fundamental attribution error: When we judge

the behaviour of other people, we tend to put
more emphasis on internal or personal factors
and less emphasis on external factors.
Service Excellence
Self-Serving Bias
• Self-serving bias-when we are successful, we

are more likely to believe it was because of
internal factors, such as ability or effort.
• When we fail, however, we blame external
factors, such as luck.
Service Excellence
Selective Perception
• Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event

stand out will increase the probability that we see that
characteristic, rather than the whole package of
characteristics.
• Since we cannot absorb all that we see, we take in bits and
pieces.
• Those bits and pieces are not chosen randomly, but are
selectively chosen according to our interests, background,
experience, and attitudes.
Service Excellence
Selective Perception
• Selective perception also allows us to “speedread”

others, but we may draw inaccurate pictures as a result.
• Because we see what we want to see, we can make
unwarranted conclusions about an ambiguous situation
• Selective perception can also make us draw wrong
conclusions about co-workers who have suffered serious
illnesses
Service Excellence
Halo Effect
• When we draw a general impression about an

individual on the basis of a single characteristic,
such as intelligence, likeability, or appearance, a
halo effect is operating.
Service Excellence
Contrast Effect
• We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to

one person is often influenced by other people we have
recently encountered.
• This demonstrates how contrast effects can distort

perceptions
• For example, when applicants previously interviewed
affect the interviewer's perception of a current candidate,
we see the contrast effect.
Service Excellence
Projection
• The tendency for people to attribute their own

characteristics to other people—which is called
projection—can distort perceptions.
• For instance, if you want challenge and responsibility in
your job, you assume that others want the same.
• Or you are honest and trustworthy, so you take it for
granted that other people are equally honest and
trustworthy.
Service Excellence
Stereotyping & Prejudice
• Stereotyping: When we judge someone on the basis

of our perception of the group to which he or she
belongs
• Prejudice is an unfounded dislike of a person or group
based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped
group.
• Prejudice can lead to negative consequences in the
workplace and, in particular, to discrimination
Service Excellence
WHY DO PERCEPTION AND
JUDGMENT MATTER?
Person Perception & Performance Appraisal
• Objective and Subjective Measures
• Objective measures, such as attendance records and sales

figures, can be used to measure performance.
• Subjective measures such as rating scales and observers'
opinions are also used to measure performance
 Rater Errors and Biases
Service Excellence
Link between Perception and Individual
Decision Making
• Individuals in organizations make decisions

• Top managers, for instance, determine their
organization's goals, what products or services to offer,
how best to finance operations, or where to locate a new
manufacturing plant.
• Middle- and lower-level managers determine production
schedules, select new employees
Service Excellence
Link between Perception and Individual
Decision Making
• Non-managerial employees also make decisions that

affect their jobs and the organizations for which they
work.
• But how individuals in organizations make decisions and
the quality of their final choices are largely influenced by
their perceptions.
Service Excellence
Implications for Performance &
Satisfaction
• Interesting jobs that provide training, variety,

independence, and control satisfy most
employees. In other words, most people prefer
work that is challenging and stimulating over
work that is predictable and routine.
• There is an interesting relationship between salary
and job satisfaction.
Service Excellence
Personality & Job Satisfaction
• Job satisfaction is not just about job conditions.

• Personality also plays a role.
• For example, some people are predisposed to like almost
anything, and others are unhappy even in the seemingly
greatest jobs.
• Research has shown that people who have a negative
personality (for example, those who tend to be grumpy,
critical, and negative) are usually less satisfied with their
jobs.
Service Excellence
The Impact of Dissatisfied/ Satisfied Employees on the
Workforce
• There are consequences when employees like their jobs, and

there are consequences when employees dislike their jobs.
• One theoretical framework—
• (a)the exit-
• (b)voice-loyalty-
• (c)neglect framework—is helpful in understanding the
consequences of dissatisfaction
Service Excellence
The Impact of Dissatisfied/ Satisfied
Employees on the Workforce
• The framework has four responses, which differ from one

another along two dimensions: constructive/destructive
and active/passive.
• The responses are defined as follows:
• Exit
• Voice
• Loyalty:
• Neglect
Service Excellence
• Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the

organization, including looking for a new position
as well as resigning.
• Voice: Actively and constructively attempting to
improve conditions, including suggesting
improvements, discussing problems with
superiors, and some forms of union activity.
Service Excellence
• Loyalty: Passively but optimistically waiting for

conditions to improve, including speaking up for the
organization in the face of external criticism and trusting
the organization and its management to "do the right
thing."
• Neglect: Passively allowing conditions to worsen,
including chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort,
and increased mistake.
Service Excellence
Job Satisfaction & Performance
• Happy workers are more likely to be productive

workers.
• However, some researchers used to believe that the
relationship between job satisfaction and job
performance was a management myth.
• But a review of 300 studies suggested that the correlation
is pretty strong.
Service Excellence
Job Satisfaction & OCB
• It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be

a major determinant of an employee's organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB).
• Satisfied employees would seem more likely to talk
positively about the organization, help others, and go
beyond the normal expectations in their job
Service Excellence
• Moreover, satisfied employees might be more prone to

go beyond the call of duty because they want to reinforce
their positive experiences.
• Consistent with this thinking, early discussions of OCB
assumed that it was closely linked with satisfaction.
• More recent evidence, however, suggests that satisfaction
influences OCB, but through perceptions of fairness.
Service Excellence
• Employees in service jobs often interact with customers.
• Since the management of service organizations should

be concerned with pleasing those customers, it is
reasonable to ask: Is employee satisfaction related to
positive customer outcomes?
• For frontline employees who have regular contact with
customers, the answer is "Yes."
Service Excellence
Job Satisfaction & Customer Satisfaction
• In addition, the relationship seems to apply in reverse:

Dissatisfied customers can increase an employee's job
dissatisfaction.
• Employees who have regular contact with customers
report that rude, thoughtless, or unreasonably
demanding customers adversely affect the employees'
job satisfaction.
Service Excellence
• Recognizing that employee satisfaction will go a long

way toward contributing to their goal of having happy
customers, these firms seek to hire enthusiastic and
friendly employees, they train employees in the
importance of customer service, they reward customer
service, they provide positive employee work
atmospheres, and they regularly track employee
satisfaction through attitude surveys.
Service Excellence
• Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction-

turnover relationship is the employee's level of performance.
• Specifically, level of satisfaction is less important in predicting
turnover for superior performers.
• The organization typically makes considerable efforts to keep
these people.
• They get pay raises, praise, recognition, increased promotional
opportunities.
Service Excellence
• The opposite tends to apply to poor performers. Few attempts

are made by the organization to retain them. There may even be
subtle pressures to encourage them to quit. We would expect,
therefore, that job satisfaction is more important in influencing
poor performers to stay than superior performers.
• Regardless of level of satisfaction the superior performers are
more likely to remain with the organization because the receipt
of recognition, praise, and other rewards gives them more
reason-for staying.
Service Excellence
Job Dissatisfaction & Workplace Deviance
• Job dissatisfaction predicts a lot of specific behaviors,

including unionization, substance abuse, stealing at
work, undue socializing, and tardiness.
• Researchers argue that these behaviors are indicators of
a broader syndrome that we would term deviant
behavior in the workplace (or employee withdrawal).
Service Excellence
• If employees do not like their work environment, they will

respond somehow.
• It is not always easy to forecast exactly how they will
respond.
• One worker's response might be to quit.
• But another may respond by taking work time to surf the

internet, taking work supplies home for personal use, and
so on.
Service Excellence
• If employers want to control the undesirable

consequences of job dissatisfaction, they should address
the source of the problem—rather than trying to control
the different responses i.e. address the dissatisfaction
itself
Service Excellence

Unit Two (2) Individual Differences and Personality: Service Excellence

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Unit Two (2) Individual Differences and Personality: Service Excellence

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UNIT TWO (2)

Individual Differences and

• Factors influencing perception

• People show substantial individual differences, or

• Behavior is therefore determined by the effects of the

The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal

It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that

– The overall profile or combination of characteristics that

capture the unique nature of a person as that person

that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels.

personalities and their behaviors.

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at

Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality

our early conditioning;

the norms among our family, friends, and social groups;

The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role

A third factor, the situation, influences the effects of

An individual’s personality, although generally stable and

More specifically, the demands of different situations call

o Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive,

• The “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator” and “the Big Five

• Personality traits are common across a variety of cultures.

• Our personality traits, by the way, are evaluated

• The MBTI classifies people based on how they prefer to:

o process and evaluate information, and

o orient themselves to the outer world

• Extraversion/Introversion (E or I). This dimension refers to

• Thinking/Feeling (T or F). This dimension refers to how

• INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original

• ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical,

• ENTPs are conceptualizers. They are innovative,

Agreeableness. This dimension refers to how readily a

Conscientiousness. This dimension is a measure of a

Emotional stability. This dimension taps a person’s ability

People high on emotional stability are calm, self-confident,

Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses a

Internals: Some people believe that they are in

Other people see themselves as pawns of fate,

Individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely

Individuals with an external locus of control are more likely

• Internals report greater well-being, and this finding

• Externals are less satisfied with their jobs, have

An individual high in machiavellianism is highly practical,

It has been found that high Machs flourish

– Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.

– Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.

– Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or

– Try to exploit loosely structured situations.

– Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in highly

 People with a low-Machiavellian personality:

– Accept direction imposed by others in loosely

– Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.

– Are unlikely to lie or cheat.

People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike

Self-esteem is directly related to expectations for success.

• In managerial positions, low SEs tend to be

Some people are better able to pay attention to the external

Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable ability to

Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in the same

They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes

High risk-taking managers make more rapid

Interestingly, the decision accuracy was the same