CHAPTER 9

TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction

Electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges whereas

magnetostatic fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform
velocity (direct current) or static magnetic charges (magnetic poles); time-
varying fields or waves are usually due to accelerated charges or time-
varying current.

◉ Stationary charges → Electrostatic fields

◉ Steady current → Magnetostatic fields
◉ Time-varying current → Electromagnetic fields (or waves)
 Introduction

Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit
is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.

Where; (1.1)

◉ N - number of turns in the circuit

◉ Ѱ - the flux through each turn
◉ Negative sign (-) - shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to
oppose the flux producing it (known as Lenz’s Law).
 Introduction

◉   considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may

Having
examine how Faraday's law links electric and magnetic fields. For a circuit
with a single (N = 1), eq. (1.1) becomes

(1.2)

In terms of E and B, eq. (1.2) can be written as

(1.3)

where , Ѱ has been replaced by and S is the surface area of the circuit
bounded by the closed path L.
 Introduction

The variation of flux with time as in eq. (1.1) or eq. (1.3) may be caused in
three ways:

1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field

2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field.
A. STATIONARY LOOP IN TIME-VARYING
B FIELD (TRANSFORMER EMF)
 Transformer EMF

In this case a stationary conducting loop is in a time varying magnetic B

field. Equation (1.3) becomes

(1.4)

This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B

field) in a stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in power
analysis since it is due to transformer action. By applying Stokes's theorem to
the middle term in eq. (1.4), we obtain

(1.3)
 Transformer EMF

For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is

(1.6)
This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-varying fields. It shows that
the time varying E field is not conservative (∇ x E ≠ 0). This does not imply
that the principles of energy conservation are violated. The work done in
taking a charge about a closed path in a time-varying electric field, for
example, is due to the energy from the time-varying magnetic field.
B. MOVING LOOP IN STATIC B FIELD
(MOTIONAL EMF)
 Motional EMF

When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in

the loop. We recall from eq. (1.7) that the force on a charge moving with
uniform velocity u in a magnetic field B is

Fm = Qu x B (1.7)

We define the motional electric field Em as

(1.8)
 Motional EMF

If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as

consisting of a large number of free electrons, the emf induced in the loop is

(1.9)
C. MOVING LOOP IN TIME-VARYING FIELD
 Moving Loop in Time-varying Field

This is the general case in which a moving conducting loop is in a time-

varying magnetic field.

(1.10)

(1.11)

or from equations 1.6 and 1.11

(1.12)
 Sample Problem #1

◉   a certain region, and . If

Within
a) use to find E;
b) find the total magnetic flux passing through the surface x = 0,
0 < y < 40m, 0 < z < 2m, at
c) find the value of the closed line integral of E around the perimeter of the
given surface
 Solution

a)
 Solution

b)

c)
 Answers

◉ 
 Sample Problem #2

◉   reference to the sliding bar shown in Figure 9.1, let d = 7cm, B = 0.3z T,
With
and m/s. Let y=0 at t=0. Find

a)
b)
c)
d)
 Solution

a)

b)
 Solution

c)

d)
 Answers

◉ 
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
 Displacement Current

Displacement Current is that current which comes in to play in the region in

which the electric field and electric flux is changing with time.
 Displacement Current

◉  static EM fields, we recall that

For

(1.13)

But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero. Hence,

(1.14)

The quantity of current requires that

(1.15)
 Displacement Current

◉   eqs. (1.14) and (1.15) are obviously incompatible for time-varying conditions.
Thus
We must modify eq. (1.13) to agree with eq. (1.15). To do this, we add a term to eq.
(1.13), so that it becomes

(1.16)

where is to be determined and defined. Again, the divergence of the curl of any
vector is zero. Hence,

(1.17)
 Displacement Current

◉order
In   for eq. (1.17) to agree with eq. (1.15),

(1.18)

or

(1.19)
 Displacement Current

◉ 
Substituting eq. (1.19) into eq. (1.16) results in

(1.20)
The term is known as displacement current density and is the conduction current
density .

Based on displacement current density, we define the displacement current as

 Displacement Current

We must bear in mind that displacement current is a result of time-varying

field. A typical example of such current is that through a capacitor when an
alternating voltage source is applied to its plates.
 Sample Problem #1

◉parallel-plate
A   capacitor with plate area of and plate separation of has a voltage
applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming .

Solution:
 Sample Problem #1

◉ 
Sample Problem #2
 Sample Problem #2

◉ 
Solution:
(a)
for air

(b)
 Sample Problem #2

◉
for  air

(c) and
 Sample Problem #2

◉ 

(d) and
 Sample Problem #2

◉ 
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN POINT FORM
 Maxwell’s Equations in Point Form

◉   of Maxwell’s equations for time-varying fields:

Two
and

The remaining two equations are unchanged from their non-time-varying form:
 Auxiliary Equations

◉ 

(conduction current density)

(conduction current density in terms of the volume charge density )

Sample Problem #1
 Sample Problem #1

◉ 
Solution:
(a) From Maxwell’s equation:
Since given ,
 Sample Problem #1

◉ 
Solution:
(b)
Here, and

Since
 Sample Problem #1

◉ 
Solution:

and given
 Example #1

◉ 
Solution:
Plugging all values in Eq. 1, we get
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

◉
◉ Faraday’s
  Law

Integratingover a surface and applying Stokes’ theorem, we obtain Faraday’s

Law,
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

◉
◉ Ampere’s
  Circuital Law

and the same process applied to yields Ampere’s Circuital Law,

 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

◉
◉ Gauss’s
  Laws

Gauss’s laws for the electric and magnetic fields are obtained by integrating
and throughout a volume and using the divergence theorem:
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

These four integral equations enable us to find the boundary conditions on B,

D, H, and E, which are necessary to evaluate the constants obtained in
solving Maxwell’s equations in partial differential form.
Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form
Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

The surface integrals produce the boundary conditions on the normal

components,

and
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

It is often desirable to idealize a physical problem by assuming a perfect

conductor for which σ is infinite but J is finite. From Ohm’s law, then, in a
perfect conductor,
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

It follows from the point form of Faraday’s law that

for time-varying fields.

 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

The point form of Ampere’s circuital law then shows that the finite value of J
is
Sample Problem
Solution
Solution
Maxwell’s Equations in Point Form & Integral Form
THE RETARDED POTENTIALS
 The Retarded Potentials

The scalar electric potential V may be expressed in terms of a static charge

distribution
 The Retarded Potentials

The vector magnetic potential may be found from a current distribution

which is constant with time
The Retarded Potentials
 The Retarded Potentials

Having found V and A, the fundamental fields are then simply obtained by
using the gradient,

or the curl,
 The Retarded Potentials

◉
The  inadequacy of (static) is obvious because application of the curl
operation to each side and recognition of the curl of the gradient as being
identically zero confront us with . However, the point form of Faraday’s law
states that is not generally zero, so let us try to affect an improvement by
adding an unknown term to (static).
The Retarded Potentials
The Retarded Potentials
 Sample Problem

◉   electric field intensity in the region in free space is given by .

The

Beginning with the relationship, use Maxwell’s equations to find a numerical

value for a, if it is known that a is greater than zero.
Solution