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CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGY

TWELFTH EDITION

Enger • Ross • Bailey

CHAPTER 6

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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6.1 Energy and organisms
 Organisms are classified based on the kind of energy
they use.
– Autotrophs
 Use the energy from sunlight to make organic molecules
(sugar) called photosynthetic autotroph
 Use the energy from inorganic chemical reaction to
make larger organic molecules called chemosynthetic
autotroph
– Heterotrophs
 Obtain their energy from the chemical bonds of food
molecules, such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins,
which they must obtain from their surroundings
 All organisms use cellular respiration.
– To harvest the energy from organic molecules and use it to
make ATP
 Energy transformation

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 6.2 Aerobic respiration: An overview

 A series of enzyme controlled reactions

– Oxygen is used to oxidize glucose.
– Glucose is oxidized to form carbon dioxide.
– Oxygen is reduced to form water.
 During the oxidation of glucose
– The C-H and O-H bonds will be broken.
– The electrons will be transferred to electron carriers, NAD
and FAD.
 Glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle
– The electrons will be passed through an electron transport
chain.
 The energy from the electrons will be used to pump protons.
 The energy from the diffusion of protons will be used to make
ATP.
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 Aerobic respiration and oxidation-
reduction reactions

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 Aerobic cellular respiration:
Overview

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 Glycolysis
 The breakdown of glucose
into pyruvic acid
 Two ATP molecules are
used to energize glucose.
 As glucose is metabolized
enough energy is released
to
– make 4 ATP molecules.
 4 ATP made -2 ATP
used = net
production of 2 ATP
– reduce 2 NAD+ to make
2 NADH.
7  Occurs in the cytoplasm
 Krebs cycle
 Also known as the citric acid
cycle or the tricarboxylic
acid (TCA) cycle
 The breakdown of pyruvic
acid
– Released as carbon dioxide
 Enough energy is released
as one pyruvic acid
molecules is metabolized to
– make 1 ATP.
– reduce 4 NAD+ to form 4
NADH.
– reduce 1 FAD to form 1
FADH2.
 Occurs in the mitochondrial
matrix
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 Electron-transport system

 NADH and FADH2 release the electrons they

received during glycolysis and the Kreb’s
cycle to the electron transport chain (ETC).
 The proteins of the ETC transfer the
electrons and use the energy released to
pump protons.
– Protons are pumped from the matrix to the
intermembrane space.
– Creates a concentration gradient

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 Electron-transport system
 Oxygen is the final electron
acceptor at the end of the
ETC.
– Oxygen accepts the
electrons, combines with
protons and become
water.
 The accumulated protons
diffuse back into the matrix
through ATPase
 The energy released
from the diffusion
fuels the formation of
ATP.
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 6.4 Aerobic respiration in prokaryotes

 Very similar to aerobic respiration in eukaryotes.

 Since prokaryotes have no mitochondria, it all occurs
in the cytoplasm.
 Make 2 more ATP because there is a cost to the
eukaryotic cell of getting the electrons into the
mitochondrion

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 6.5 Anaerobic cellular respiration
 Some organisms do not have the enzymes
for Kreb’s cycle or the electron transport
system.
 Some organisms can metabolize glucose in
the absence of oxygen.
 Metabolizing glucose in the absence of
oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.
– Involves the incomplete oxidation of glucose.
– Fermentation is an anaerobic pathway that uses
12 an organic molecule as the final electron
 Anaerobic cellular respiration
 Anaerobic respiration usually starts with
glycolysis.
– Glucose is metabolized into pyruvic acid.
– 2 ATP are made.
 The fermentation reactions oxidize NADH to
regenerate the NAD+ that is needed in
glycolysis.
– In the process, pyruvic acid is reduced to either
lactic acid or ethanol or another organic molecule.

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 Types of fermentation

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 Alcoholic fermentation
 Starts with glycolysis
– Glucose is metabolized to
pyruvic acid.
– A net of 2 ATP is made.
 During alcoholic fermentation
– Pyruvic acid is reduced to form
ethanol.
– Carbon dioxide is released.
 Yeast do this
– Leavened bread (p. 122)
– Sparkling wine (p. 123)

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 Lactic acid fermentation
 Starts with glycolysis
– Glucose is metabolized to pyruvic acid.
– A net of 2 ATP is made.
 During lactic acid fermentation
– Pyruvic acid is reduced to form lactic acid. (p. 123)
– No carbon dioxide is released.
 Muscle cells have the enzymes to do this, but brain
cells do not. (p. 123)
– Muscle cells can survive brief periods of oxygen
deprivation, but brain cells cannot.
– Lactic acid “burn” in muscles.
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OUTLOOKS 6.1
Souring VS. Spoilage
 Metabolizing other molecules
 Cells will use the energy in carbohydrates first.
– Complex carbohydrates are metabolized into
simple sugars.
 Cells can use the energy in fats and proteins as well.
– Fats are digested into fatty acids and glycerol.
– Proteins are digested into amino acids.
 Cells must convert fats and proteins into molecules
that can enter and be metabolized by the enzymes
of glycolysis or the Kreb’s cycle.

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 Fat respiration (See p. 124)
 Fats are broken down into
– Glycerol
– Fatty acids
 Glycerol
– Converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
– Enters glycolysis
 Fatty acids
– Converted to acetylCoA
– Enter the Kreb’s cycle
 Each molecule of fat fuels the formation of many
more ATP than glucose. (p. 124)
– This makes it a good energy storage molecule.

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Outlooks 6.2
Lipid Metabolism and ketoacidosis
 Protein respiration (p. 125)

 Proteins are digested into amino acids.

 Then amino acids have the amino group
removed.
– Generates a keto acid (acetic acid, pyruvic acid,
etc)
– Enter the Kreb’s cycle at the appropriate place

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The interconversion of fats,
carbohydrates and proteins
 The bottom line

 Carbohydrates, fats and proteins can all be

used for energy.
– Glycolysis and the Kreb’s cycle allow these types
of molecules to be interchanged.
 If more calories are consumed than used
– The excess food will be stored.
– Once the organism has all of the proteins it needs
 And its carbohydrate stores are full
 The remainder will be converted to and stored as fat.

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How Science works 6.1
Applying Knowledge of Biochemical Pathways