THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

CONTENTS

UNIT-I

1.INTRODUCTION
2. INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
3. LYMPHOCYTES
4. Antigen-Immunogen and their properties

Source : Kubay, Immunology, Abbas,A.K

The Immune System
The Human Battle against the
Microbe
World
 The immune system
A functional system – NOT an organ system:

Complex system – includes

• Skin – physical barrier
• Lining of mucus membranes – physical barrier
• Secretions – tears, mucus etc - antimicrobial
• Blood cells and vasculature – WBCs
• Bone marrow
• Liver – makes complement proteins
• Lymphatic system and lymphoid organs
• Most tissues – have resident immune cells
 Immunity
• Immunity (immunis- Latin-exempt, state of protection
from infectious diseases)
• Immunity is body's ability to resist or eliminate
potentially harmful foreign materials or abnormal cells
• consists of following activities:
– Defense against invading pathogens (viruses & bacteria)
– Removal of 'worn-out' cells (e.g., old RBCs) & tissue debris
(e.g., from injury or disease)
– Identification & destruction of abnormal or mutant cells
(primary defense against cancer)
– Rejection of 'foreign' cells (e.g., organ transplant)
– Inappropriate responses:
• Allergies - response to normally harmless substances
• Autoimmune diseases
The Immune System
Overview of the Immune System

Interactions between the two systems

 A typical immune response
INNATE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Rapid responses to a Slower responses to
broad range of microbes specific microbes

External defenses Internal defenses

Skin Phagocytic cells

Humoral response
Mucous membranes Antimicrobial proteins (antibodies)

Secretions Inflammatory response

Invading
microbes Natural killer cells Cell-mediated response
Complement
(pathogens) (cytotoxic
lymphocytes)
Innate immunity vs Adaptive Immunity

Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity

(first line of defense) (second line of defense)

• No time lag • A lag period

• Not antigen specific • Antigen specific

No memory • Development
of memory
The innate immune System

Interactions between the two systems

Innate immune system
External defenses
 Anatomical Barriers - Mechanical Factors

• Skin

• Mucociliary
escalator

• Flushing action of
saliva, tears, urine
Anatomical Barriers – Chemical factors
HCl in
Antimicrobial stomach Lysozyme in tears
Peptides in sweat /saliva
 Anatomical Barriers – Biological factors

Normal flora – microbes in many parts of the body

Normal flora – > 1000 species of bacteria

Normal flora – competes with pathogens

for nutrients and space
Innate immune system
internal defenses
Innate immune system: components of Blood

Complement proteins
 
Coagulation proteins Extracellular

Cytokines

WBCs
 White blood cells (WBCs)
Macrophages

B-lymphocytes

T-lymphocytes

Natural killer(NK)
cells

Mast cells
 Neutrophils in innate immune
response

• Most abundant WBCs (~50-60%)

• Efficient phagocytes

• Most important cells of the innate immune system

 Phagocytosis
• Phago = to eat
• Cyte = cell

• WBCs (eg. Neutrophils) – find, eat and digest

microbes !
 How do neutrophils eat and digest
microbes ?

Granules
 What’s in the granules ?

Lysozyme – digests bacterial cell

wall; other antimicrobial proteins
Additional role of neutrophils

Triggers inflammatory response

 Monocytes

• Monocytes (~5% of WBCs)

• Migrate into the tissues and

become Macrophages

Lung Bone

Liver Brain
intestine
 Macrophages

• “Big eaters”

• Phagocytosis of microbes in tissue

(neutrophils are present only in blood)

• Antigen presentation
 NK Cells

• 5-10% of circulating lymphocytes

• Attack foreign cells, normal cels infected with
viruses, cancer cells that appear in normal
tissues
• Known as “immunologic surveillance”

25
 NK Cells attack:
cancer cells and
cells infected with viruses
1) Cancer Cells -with tumor specific antigens:
– are identified as abnormal by NK cells
– some cancer cells avoid NK cells (immunological
escape)
2) Viral Infections : Cells infected with viruses:
– present abnormal proteins on cell membranes
– allow NK cells to identify and destroy them
 NK Cell Function
• Identifies and attaches to abnormal cell (non-
selective)
• Golgi apparatus in NK cell:
– forms perforin vesicles
• Vesicles release perforin (exocytosis)
• Perforin lyses abnormal cell membrane
 Natural Killer Cell Function
Immunological Surveillance is carried out by
Natural killer (NK) cells

Figure 22–11
 Natural killer cells
• Not B-lymphocytes / T-
lymphocytes

• Important part of the innate

immune system

• Kill virus /bacteria infected

cells (Intracellular
pathogens)

• Kills cancer cells

NK cells differentiate choose cells to kill ?

Uninfected cell / Normal cell

Microbe infected cell / cancer

cell

Some cell surface proteins are missing

 How does the killer kill ?

Kills both host cells and microbes

Release of granules with perforins and proteases

 Toll-like receptors (TLRs)
• Transmembrane proteins

• Present on macrophages / few other cells

• Conserved across vertebrates

• Important part of innate immune system

 TLRs – What do they do ?
They look out for microbes (or their components)

They bind to the microbes (or their components)

They trigger a cascade of events to kill or protect

against pathogens

THEY ARE INNATE IMMUNE SENSORS

TLRs – look out for microbes
TLRs – bind to microbes /
components of microbes
Which microbial components are
recognized by TLRs ?
 Summary: innate response – internal
defenses – Cellular (WBCs)
Come into play when the external defenses are breached

• Neutrophils

• Monocytes /macrophages

• NK cells

• TLRs
Innate immune system: components of Blood

Complement proteins
 
Coagulation proteins

Cytokines

WBCs
 Cytokines
• Small proteins – secreted by
cells of the immune system

• Affect the behaviour of other

cells

• signalling molecules

• Key players in innate and

acquired immunity
 Which cells release cytokines ?
Cells of the immune system:

• Neutrophils – when they encounter a pathogen

• Macrophages – when they encounter a pathogen

• TLRs – bind to microbe / components of a microbe

• NK cells – on encountering a microbe infected cell /tumour cell

• Lymphocytes – when they are activated

 Examples of cytokines
• Interferons

• Interleukins

• Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)

 Interferons (IFN)
• Signalling proteins produced by by virus infected monocytes
and lymphocytes

• Secreted proteins – Key anti-viral proteins

• “Interfere” with virus replication

• Warn the neighbouring cells that a virus is around...

• If we did not have IFNs – most of us may die of influenza virus

infection
How does IFN warn the neighbouring
cells ?

43
The infected cells release IFN

antiviral state

antiviral state antiviral state

antiviral state
44
Virus infects the neighbouring cells

antiviral state

antiviral state antiviral state

antiviral state
45
Prewarned cells are able to quickly
inhibit the virus

antiviral state

antiviral state antiviral state

antiviral state
46
 How do interferons inhibit viruses ?

Inactive host protein

Induction Virus ds-RNA
Activation

Host protein Active host protein

Cascade of events

Inhibition of
host protein
synthesis
Virus cannot replicate
 Interleukins
• Interleukins – 1-37

• Not stored inside cells

• Quickly synthesized and secreted in response to infection

• Key modulators of behaviour of immune cells

• Mostly secreted by T-lymphocytes & macrophages

 What to interleukins do ?

Proliferation of immune
cells

Interleukins
Increase antibody production
Inflammation

Activation of immune cells

 Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)
TNF

Killing of Fever
cancer Inflammation
 Complement (C`)
•  a large number of distinct plasma proteins that react with
one another (C1 thro’ C9)

• Complement can bind to microbes and coat the microbes

• Essential part of innate immune response

• Enhances adaptive immune resposne (taught later)

 Complement proteins: role in innate
immune system
C`proteins

Facilitates Direct lysis of pathogens Inflammation

phagocytosis
How do C` proteins facilitate phagocystosis ?
Bacteria coated with Neutrophils have C` receptors
C`

Initiation of phagocytosis
How do C` proteins lyse pathogens?
Membrane attack complex formed by c`
proteins
 Coagulation proteins
• Coagulation: mechanism to stop bleeding after injury to blood
vessels

Complex pathway involves

• Platelets
• Coagulation factors
• Vitamin K
How does blood clot ?
 Our 1 Line of Defense...
st

• The Integumentary System…

– Skin
– Mucous membranes
– Mucous

• provides a physical barrier preventing

microbial access
The Invaders . . .

• Bacteria http://www.hhs.gov/asphep/presentation/images/bacteria.jpg

• Viruses

• parasites

such as http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/biology/plant_bio/lab13.FUNGI.html
fungi,

protista, & worms

worm trichura.jpg
 Other mechanisms of Defense...
• Physiological variables
– pH of our environment
– temperature of our environment

• chemical defenses
– nitric oxide, enzymes, proteins, complement

• AND the IMMUNE SYSTEM…

 Cells of Immune System
Stem cells of bon marrow
differentiate into
cytokines (IL-&, IL-3)
colony stimulating factor

Lymphoid series Myeloid series

B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes NK

monocytee-macrophages dendritic cells eosinophils mast cells

LE 43-2

INNATE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

Rapid responses to a Slower responses to
broad range of microbes specific microbes

External defenses Internal defenses

Skin Phagocytic cells Humoral response

Mucous membranes Antimicrobial proteins (antibodies)
Secretions Inflammatory response
Invading Cell-mediated response
Natural killer cells
microbes (cytotoxic
(pathogens) lymphocytes)
Innate Immunity
Innate immunity can be seen to comprise four types of defensive
barriers: anatomic, physiologic, phagocytic, and inflammatory
(Table 1-2).
 Cells of the Immune System
White Blood Cells
• Phagocytes - Neutrophils
- Macrophages
• Lymphocytes
• Phagocytes
• Produced throughout life by the bone
marrow.
• Scavengers – remove dead cells and
microorganisms.
 Neutrophils

• 60% of WBCs
• ‘Patrol tissues’ as they squeeze out of the
capillaries.
• Large numbers are released during infections
• Short lived – die after digesting bacteria
• Dead neutrophils make up a large proportion
of puss.
 Macrophages
• Larger than neutrophils.
• Found in the organs, not the blood.
• Made in bone marrow as monocytes, called
macrophages once they reach organs.
• Long lived
• Initiate immune responses as they display
antigens from the pathogens to the
lymphocytes.
Macrophage
Filaria (causes elephantitis) and macrophages
 Lymphocytes
the primary cells of the lymphoid system

• Respond to:
– Invading organisms
– Abnormal body cells, such as virus-infected cells
or cancer cells
– Foreign proteins such as the toxins released by
some bacteria
• Types of lymphocytes
– T cells (thymus-dependent)
– B cells (bone marrow-derived)
– NK cells (natural killer)
73
 Lymphocytes
• Produce antibodies
• B-cells mature in bone marrow then
concentrate in lymph nodes and spleen
• T-cells mature in thymus
• B and T cells mature then circulate in the
blood and lymph
• Circulation ensures they come into contact
with pathogens and each other
 B -Lymphocytes
• There are c.10 million different B-
lymphocytes, each of which make a different
antibody.
• The huge variety is caused by genes coding for
abs changing slightly during development.
• There are a small group of clones of each type
of B-lymphocyte
 B -Lymphocytes
• At the clone stage antibodies do not leave the B-
cells.
• The abs are embedded in the plasma membrane of
the cell and are
called antibody receptors.
• When the receptors in the membrane recognise and
antigen on the surface of the pathogen the B-cell
divides rapidly.
• The antigens are presented to the B-cells by
macrophages
B -Lymphocytes
 B Cells
• 10-15% of circulating lymphocytes
• Can differentiate into plasmocytes (plasma cells)
when stimulated by exposure to an antigen
• Plasma cells produce antibodies: soluble proteins
which react with antigens, also known as
immunoglobulins (Ig’s)
• “Humoral immunity”, or antibody-mediated
immunity
• Memory B cells: produced by the division of
activated B cells following exposure to a particular
antigen (remain on reserve, to be reactivated
following later exposure to the same antigen)
79
 B -Lymphocytes
• Some activated B cells  PLASMA CELLS
these produce lots of antibodies, < 1000/sec
• The antibodies travel to the blood, lymph,
lining of gut and lungs.
• The number of plasma cells goes down after a
few weeks
• Antibodies stay in the blood longer but
eventually their numbers go down too.
 B -Lymphocytes
• Some activated B cells  MEMORY CELLS.
• Memory cells divide rapidly as soon as the
antigen is reintroduced.
• There are many more memory cells than
there were clone cells.
• When the pathogen/infection infects again it
is destroyed before any symptoms show.
Distinctive membrane molecules on lymphocytes
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LYMPHOCYTES
Functions of Different types of lymphocytes
Principle mechanism of innate and adaptive immunity
Types of adaptive immunity
Maturation of lymphocytes
 T Cells
• 80% of circulating lymphocytes
• Some of the types:
– Cytotoxic T cells: attack foreign cells or body cells
infected by viruses (“cell-mediated immunity”)
– Regulatory T cells: Helper T cells and suppressor T
cells (control activation and activity of B cells)
– Memory T cells: produced by the division of
activated T cells following exposure to a particular
antigen (remain on reserve, to be reactivated
following later exposure to the same antigen)

89
 T-Lymphocytes

• Mature T-cells have T cell receptors which

have a very similar structure to antibodies and
are specific to 1 antigen.
• They are activated when the receptor comes
into contact with the Ag with another host cell
(e.g. on a macrophage membrane or an
invaded body cell)
 T-Lymphocytes

• After activation the cell divides to form:

• T-helper cells – secrete CYTOKINES
 help B cells divide
 stimulate macrophages
• Cytotoxic T cells (killer T cells)
 Kill body cells displaying antigen
• Memory T cells
 remain in body
•
T Lymphocytes
Produced in the red bone marrow and mature
under the influence of the thymus
• Circulate in the lymph and blood and migrate to
the lymph nodes, spleen, and Peyer’s patches
• Part of the cell-mediated immune response
because they act directly against various antigens
– Cells that harbor intracellular pathogens
– Abnormal body cells such as cancer cells that
produce abnormal cell surface proteins
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
• People with AIDS
– Are highly susceptible to opportunistic infections
and cancers that take advantage of an immune
system in collapse

• Because AIDS arises from the loss of helper T

cells
– Both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses
are impaired
• The loss of helper T cells
– Results from infection by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Figure 43.22 1µm

• The spread of HIV
– Has become a worldwide problem
• The best approach for slowing the spread of HIV
– Is educating people about the practices that
transmit the virus
 Third Line of Defense
• Is called adaptive immunity
– The body’s ability to recognize and defend itself against
distinct invaders and their products
– Is a “smart” system whose “memory” allows it to
respond rapidly to a second encounter with a pathogen
• Antigens trigger specific immune responses
• Various cells, tissues, and organs are part of
specific immunity
– We will concentrate on B and T lymphocytes
 Lymphatic Vessels
• Form a one-way system that conducts lymph from
local tissues and returns it to the circulatory system

– Lymph is a liquid with similar composition to blood

plasma that arises from fluid leaked from blood vessels
into surrounding tissues

– An accumulation of too much fluid in tissues is called

Edema
 Lymphoid Cells
• Develop from stem cells in the red bone marrow
• Includes lymphocytes, the smallest of the leukocytes
 Lymph Nodes
• Houses leukocytes that recognize and attack foreign antigens
present in the lymph
• Concentrated in the cervical (neck), inguinal (groin), axillary
(armpit), and abdominal regions
• Receives lymph from afferent lymphatic vessels and drains lymph
into efferent lymphatic vessels
 Other Lymphoid Tissues and
• Spleen Organs
– Similar in structure and function to the lymph nodes
– Filters bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other foreign matter
from the blood
• Tonsils and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT)
– Physically trap foreign particles and microbes
– MALT includes the appendix, lymphoid tissue of the
respiratory tract, vagina, urinary bladder, mammary
glands, and Peyer’s patches in the wall of the small
intestine
•
B Lymphocytes
Arise and mature in the red bone marrow

• Found primarily in the spleen, lymph nodes, and

MALT

• Small percentage of B cells circulate in the blood

• Major function is the secretion of antibodies

T Cell Receptor

Figure 16.9
 Cytotoxic T cells (TC Cells)
• Distinguished by the CD8 cell-surface glycoprotein

• Directly kill certain cells

– Cells infected with viruses and other
intracellular pathogens
– Abnormal cells, such as cancer cells
 Helper T Cells (TH Cells)
• Distinguished by the CD4 cell-surface glycoprotein

• Function to “help” regulate the activities of B

cells and cytotoxic T cells during an immune
response
• Secrete various soluble protein messengers,
called cytokines, that determine which
immune response will be activated
 Helper T Cells (TH Cells)
• Two types

– Type 1 helper T cell (TH1)

• Assist cytotoxic T cells
• Express a cytokine receptor named CCR5

– Type 2 helper T cell (TH2)

• Assist B cells
• Have cytokine receptors CCR3 and CCR4
 Cytokines
• Soluble regulatory proteins that act as intercellular
signals when released from certain body cell

• Immune system cytokines signal among various

leukocytes

• The complex web of signals among all the cell types of

the immune system is referred to as the cytokine
network
 Cytokines of the Immune System
• Interleukins (ILs) – signal among leukocytes
• Interferons (IFNs) – antiviral proteins that may act as
cytokines
• Growth factors – proteins that stimulate stem cells to
divide, maintaining a adequate supply of leukocytes
• Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) – Secreted by macrophages
and T cells to kill tumor cells and regulate immune
responses and inflammation
• Chemokines – signal leukocytes to go to a site of
inflammation or infection and stimulate other
leukocytes
 Lymphocyte Editing by Clonal
Deletion

• Vital that immune responses not be directed against

autoantigens

• Body “edits” lymphocytes to eliminate any self-reactive

cells
 Major Histocompatibility Complex
(MHC)
• Important in determining the compatibility of tissues in
successful tissue grafting (transplantation)
• Major histocompatibility antigens are glycoproteins found in the
membranes of most cells of vertebrate animals
• Function to hold and position antigenic determinants for
presentation to T cells
• Antigens bind in the antigen-binding groove of MHC molecules
• Two classes of MHC proteins
– MHC class I
– MHC class II
 Development of lymphocytes
Originate in bone marrow from lymphoid stem cells
B cells stay in bone marrow, hence “B” cells
T cells mature in thymus, hence “T” cells

These divide rapidly into families

Each has surface receptors
able to recognize one
unique type of antigen=
immunocompetence

112
•
Plasma Cells
Make up the majority of cells produced during B cell
proliferation
• Each plasma cell secretes only antibody molecules
complementary to the specific antigenic determinant
• Are short-lived cells that die within a few days of
activation, though their antibodies and progeny can
persist
 Memory B Cells
• Cells produced by B cell proliferation that do not secrete
antibodies
• Long-lived cells that divide only a few times and then
persist in the lymphoid tissue
• Are available to initiate antibody production if the same
antigen is encountered again
•
Acquired Immunity
Specific immunity acquired during an individuals life
• Two types
– Naturally acquired- immune response against antigens
encountered in daily life
– Artificially acquired- response to antigens introduced via
a vaccine
• Further distinguished as either active or passive
– Active- active response to antigens via humoral or cell-
mediated responses
– Passive- passively receive antibodies from another
individual
A Comparison of the Types of Acquired
Immunity

Table 16.3
Multiple cellular interactions take place in the BM
119
Development of Leukemia in the Bloodstream

Stage 1- Normal Stage 2- Symptoms Stage 3- Diagnosis

Legend

White cell Stage 5a- Anemia

Red cell

Platelets Stage 4- Worsening

Blasts
Germ
Stage 5b- Infection
 “Humoral” vs “Cell mediated”
• Cell-mediated immunity - direct attack by activated T
cells (react with foreign antigens on the surface of other
host cells)

• Antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity – attack by

circulating antibodies, also called immunoglobins (Ig’s),
released by the plasma cells derived from activated B
cells
“humor” – from old-fashioned word for stuff in the blood,
like ‘good humors’ and ‘bad humors’

These two systems interact with each other

121
Overview of Immune Response
• Innate immunity is present before any exposure to
pathogens and is effective from the time of birth
• It involves nonspecific responses to pathogens
• Key internal defenses are macrophages and other
phagocytic cells
• Acquired immunity, or adaptive immunity,
develops after exposure to agents such as
microbes, toxins, or other foreign substances
• Recognition is by white blood cells called
lymphocytes
• Some lymphocytes produce antibodies; others
destroy infected cells, cancer cells, or foreign
tissue
 Active and Passive Immunity
Active immunity
Lymphocytes are activated by antigens on the
surface of pathogens
Natural active immunity - acquired due to
infection
Artificial active immunity – vaccination

Takes time for enough B and T cells to be

produced to mount an effective response.
 Active and Passive Immunity
Passive immunity
B and T cells are not activated and plasma cells
have not produced antibodies.
The antigen doesn’t have to be encountered for
the body to make the antibodies.
Antibodies appear immediately in blood but
protection is only temporary.
 Active and Passive Immunity
Artificial passive immunity
Used when a very rapid immune response is
needed e.g. after infection with tetanus.
Human antibodies are injected. In the case of
tetanus these are antitoxin antibodies.
Antibodies come from blood donors who have
recently had the tetanus vaccination.
Only provides short term protection as abs
destroyed by phagocytes in spleen and liver.
 Active and Passive Immunity
Natural passive immunity
A mother’s antibodies pass across the placenta
to the foetus and remain for several months.
Colostrum (the first breast milk) contains lots of
IgA which remain on surface of the baby’s gut
wall and pass into blood
 Antigens
Quick definition=Molecules that trigger a specific immune
response

• Include components of bacterial cell walls, capsules,

pili, and flagella, as well as proteins of viruses, fungi,
and protozoa
• Food and dust can also contain antigenic particles

• Enter the body by various methods

Properties of the immunogen contribute to immunogenecity
Immunogens / Antigens
Immunogens and antigens

• Immunogen / antigen: a substance that elicits

an immune response [i.e. a humoral (antibody
response) or cell-mediated immune response]

Immune response generator

 Epitope
• Epitope: the portion of an antigen that is recognized
and bound by an antibody (Ab) or a T-cell receptor
(TCR)

• epitope = antigenic determinant

 Epitopes

• B-cell Epitopes – recognized by B-cells

• T-cell Epitopes – recognized by T cells

 Immunogenicity
• Immunogencity: is the ability to induce a humoral
(antibody) and/or cell-mediated immune response.

• Weak immunogens
• Strong immunogens
 What determines immunogenicity ?
• Foreignness: essential for immunogenicity (self-responsive
immune cells are eliminated during lymphocyte development)

• Size: Bigger>Smaller

• Chemical composition: Proteins > nucleic acids /

polysaccharides / lipids

• Structure: Primary /secondary /tertiary structures play a role

• Physical form: Particulate> Soluble

Host factors affecting immunogencity
• Difference across species (interspecies)

• Differences within a species (intraspecies)

- Responders / non-responders to vaccine
- differences in disease severity in epidemics

Genetics

Age
 Isoantigens
• Isoantigens: Antigens present in some but not all
members of a species

• Blood group antigens – basis of blood grouping

• MHC (major histocompatibility complex)- cell surface

glycoproteins
 Autoantigens
• Autoantigens are substances capable of immunizing
the host from which they are obtained.

• Self antigens are ordinarily non-antigenic

• Modifications of self-antigens are capable of eliciting

an immune response
 Haptens

• Haptens are small molecules which are non-

immunogenic, thus could never induce an
immune response by themselves.
Examples of haptens

DO NOT ELICIT an immune response by themselves

Immunogens / Antigens
 What is an antibody?
• Produced by Plasma cell (B-lymphocytes producing Ab)

• Essential part of adaptive immunity

• Specifically bind a unique antigenic epitope (also called an

antigenic determinant)

• Possesses antigen binding sites

• Members of the class of proteins called immunoglobulins

 What does an antibody look like ?
Variable region

• 2 identical heavy chains

• 2 identical light chains

• Each heavy chain – has a

constant and a variable
Constant

L L region

• Each light chain has a

region

constant and a variable

H H region
Antibody: structure and function

• Fab – fragment antigen

binding

• Fc- Fragment constant

Antibody: Fab
Fab region
•Variable region of the
antibody

•Tip of the antibody

•Binds the antigen

•Specificity of antigen
binding determined by
VH and VL
Antibody: Fc
Fc region
•Constant region

•Base of the antibody

•Can bind cell receptors

and complement proteins
 Antibodies exist in two forms
• Antibodies occur in 2 forms

– Soluble Ag: secreted in blood and tissue

– Membrane-bound Ag: found on surface of B-cell, also

known as a B-cell receptor (BCR)
•
Antibodies
Also called immunoglobulins (Ig)

• Soluble proteins that bind antigen

• Secreted by plasma cells, which are B cells actively

fighting exogenous antigen

• Considered part of the humoral immune response

since bodily fluids such as lymph and blood were once
called humors
 Antibody Structure

 Antigen-binding sites are complementary to antigenic

determinants (epitopes) Figure 16.5
 Functions of Antibodies
 Function in several ways
 Activation of
complement
 Stimulation of
inflammation
 Neutralization
 Opsonization
 Agglutination

Figure 16.6
•
Classes of Antibodies
Apparently a single type of antibody is not sufficient for
the multiple types of invaders to the body
• The class involved in the immune response depends on
the type of foreign antigen, the portal of entry, and the
antibody function needed
• Five different classes of antibodies
Classes of Antibodies

Figure 16.7
Hematopoiesis

ALL

AML