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Network Layer: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach
Network Layer: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach
Network Layer
physical
network layer protocols in network
application
transport
every host, router network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link
physical
router examines header
data link physical
physical
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1
3 2
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host address)
every router on source-dest path maintains “ state” for each
passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated to
VC (dedicated resources = predictable service)
1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table in number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #
1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …
application application
5. data flow begins 6. receive data
transport transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call
1. initiate call network
data link 2. incoming call
data link
physical physical
application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical
IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2
otherwise 3
examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-19
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
data exchange among evolved from telephony
computers human conversation:
“ elastic” service, no strict strict timing, reliability
timing req. requirements
need for guaranteed service
many link types “ dumb” end systems
different characteristics telephones
uniform service difficult complexity inside network
“ smart” end systems
(computers)
can adapt, perform control,
error recovery
simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”
forwarding data
plane (hardware)
high-speed
switching
fabric
physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port memory
(“match plus action”)
goal: complete input port processing at ‘line
speed’
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-23
Switching fabrics
transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transferred from inputs to outputs
often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
three types of switching fabrics
memory
input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)
system bus
datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)
buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate Datagram (packets) can be lost
duequeued
scheduling discipline chooses among to congestion, lack of buffers
datagrams for transmission
switch
switch
fabric
fabric
switch switch
fabric fabric
layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer
physical layer
…
frame in: one large datagram
different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
large IP datagram divided
(“ fragmented” ) within net reassembly
one datagram becomes
several datagrams
“ reassembled” only at …
final destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 4-35
IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams
223 1 1 1
that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
to determine the
223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
subnets, detach each 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
is called a subnet
223.1.3.0/24
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
223.1.3.0/24
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server!
yiaddrr:Here’s an IP
223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
address
lifetime:you
3600can
secs use
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
that IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: OK. You’ve
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
got that IPID:
transaction address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-47
DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address
on subnet:
address of first-hop router for client
name and IP address of DNS sever
network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)
encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded
DHCP UDP to client, demuxing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
Phy server built into client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DNS server, IP
address of its first-hop router
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to 10.0.0.1
by client relay initiated
by NATed host
3. relaying
client established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router
3 probes 3 probes
3 probes
Network Layer 4-66
IPv6: motivation
initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
data
32 bits
Network Layer 4-68
Other changes from IPv4
checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “ Next Header” field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “ Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions
IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-70
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
data data
A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-72
IPv6: adoption
US National Institutes of Standards estimate [2013]:
~3% of industry IP routers
~11% of US gov’t routers
IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
notes: 5 7
4
construct shortest path tree by
tracing predecessor nodes 8
ties can exist (can be broken u
3 w y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-82
Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
v w
u z
x y
1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
1
C C 0 1
C 1+e C 0
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs
Network Layer 4-85
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
RIP
datagram format
OSPF
IPv4 addressing
BGP
ICMP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing
let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v
{c(x,v) + dv(y) }
cost from neighbor v to destination y
cost to neighbor v
from
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from
y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞
node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-92
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-93
Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
node detects local link cost change y
4 1
updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
if DV changes, notify neighbors
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS algorithm
Routing Routing
algorithm algorithm intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding
for internal dests
table inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for external
dests
Network Layer 4-100
Inter-AS tasks
suppose router in AS1 AS1 must:
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of AS1: reachable through AS2,
router should forward which through AS3
packet to gateway 2. propagate this
router, but which one? reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
3c … x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
3c … x …
3b
3a …
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 4-103
Example: choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet
x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.
z
w x y
A D B
C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-108
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B
C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-109
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)
transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical
backbone
area
border
routers
area 3
internal
routers
area 1
area 2
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
routing algorithms
Assume prefix is
local forwarding table in another AS.
entry prefix output port
138.16.64/22 3
124.12/16 2
212/8 4
………….. …
Dest IP
1
3 2
How does entry get in forwarding table?
High-level overview
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
2. Router determines output port for prefix
3. Router enters prefix-port in forwarding table
Router becomes aware of prefix
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
Example:
select
AS2 AS17 to 138.16.64/22
AS3 AS131 AS201 to 138.16.64/22
3c
3a 111.99.86.55
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
Router identifies port for route
3c router
3a port
3b
AS3 1 2c other
1c 4 2a networks
2 3
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
Hot Potato Routing
Suppose there two or more best inter-routes.
Then choose route with closest NEXT-HOP
Use OSPF to determine which gateway is closest
Q: From 1c, chose AS3 AS131 or AS2 AS17?
A: route AS3 AS201 since it is closer
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
How does entry get in forwarding table?
Summary
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
via BGP route advertisements from other routers
2. Determine router output port for prefix
Use BGP route selection to find best inter-AS route
Use OSPF to find best intra-AS route leading to best
inter-AS route
Router identifies router port for that best route
3. Enter prefix-port entry in forwarding table
BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:
Y
A advertises path AW to B
B advertises path BAW to X
Should B advertise path BAW to C?
No way! B gets no “ revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W nor
C are B’s customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!
R3 R4 R3 R4
source in-network
duplication duplication
A A
B B
c c
D D
F E F E
G G
(a) broadcast initiated at A (b) broadcast initiated at D
A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) stepwise construction of (b) constructed spanning
spanning tree (center: E) tree
Network Layer 4-139
Multicast routing: problem statement
goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers having
local mcast group members legend
tree: not all paths between routers used group
shared-tree: same tree used by all group members member
not group
source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs member
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member
s: source LEGEND
R1 2 router with attached
1 R4
group member
R2 5 router with no attached
3 4 group member
R5
i link used for forwarding,
R3 6
i indicates order link
R6 R7 added by algorithm
LEGEND
dense: sparse:
group members densely # networks with group
packed, in “ close” members small wrt #
proximity. interconnected networks
bandwidth more plentiful group members “ widely
dispersed”
bandwidth not plentiful