Advanced Algorithms Analysis

and Design

By

Dr. Nazir Ahmad Zafar

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Lecture No 3

Logic and Proving Techniques

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Today Covered

Tools used for proving algorithms

• Propositional Logic
• Predicate Logic
• Proofs using
• Truth Tables
• Logical Equivalences
• Counter Example
• Contradiction
• Rule of Inference
• Probability as Analysis Tool
• Series and Summation etc.
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Propositional and Predicate Logic

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Logical Connectives

• Proposition: Simplest statements also called atomic formula

• Propositions may be connected based on atomic formula.
• Logical connectives, in descending order of operator precedence

Symbol Name Pronunciation

 negation not
 conjunction and
 disjunction or
 implication implies
 equivalence if and only if

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction

Negation
Conjunction
• The conjunction p  q is true only if p and q both are
true otherwise false
• The conjunction follows the commutative property,
i.e. p  q = q  p

Disjunction
• The disjunction p  q is false if both p and q are false
otherwise true
• The disjunction follows the commutative property as
well, i.e. p  q = q  p
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Implication

• The p is antecedent and q is consequent

• The antecedent is stronger than consequent.
• Commutative property does not hold, i.e.
(p  q)  (q  p)
p q pq qp pq
t t t t t
t f f t f
f t t f t
f f t t t
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Bi-implication

The equivalence p  q means p  q & q  p

Commutative property does hold, i.e.
(p  q) = (q  p)

p q pq qp pq&qp

t t t t t
t f f t f
f t t f f
f f t t t

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicate: P(x)  x < 5

Example:  x : N | x2 = x  x < 2
For all quantifier
  x, P(x) is true  P(x) is true for all x.
Existential Quantifier
  x, P(x) is true  P(x) is true for some value of x.
Logical Equivalences
  x, P(x) is logically equivalent to  ( x, P(x))
  x, P(x) is logically equivalent to ( x, P(x))
  x, (P(x)  Q(x)) means x, P(x)  Q(x)
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Proving Techniques

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Proof using Truth Table: (p  q  r)  (p  (q  r))

p q r (p  q  r)  (p  (q  r))
t t t t t t t tt
t t f t f t f ft
t f t f t t t tt
t f f f t t t tt
f t t f t t t tt
f t f f t t t ft
f f t f t t t tt
f f f f t t t tt
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 De Morgan’s Laws

1. (p  q) =  p   q

p q pq (p  q) p q p  q

t t t f f f f
t f f t f t t
f t f t t f t
f f f t t t t

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 De Morgan’s Laws

2. (p  q) =  p   q

p q pq (p  q) p q p  q

t t t f f f f
t f t f f t f
f t t f t f f
f f f t t t t

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Proof using Counter Example, Contraposition

Counter Example
To prove  x (A(x)  B(x)) is false, we show some
object x for which A(x) is true and B(x) is false.
Proof
 ( x (A(x)  B(x))) 
 x, (A(x)  B(x))) 
 x, (A(x)  B(x)) 
 x, A(x)  B(x))

Contraposition
To prove A  B, we show ( B)  ( A)
• x is divisible by 4  x is divisible by 2 
x is not divisible by 2  x is not divisible by 4 
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Proof by Contradiction

Contradiction
To prove A  B,
Steps in Proof
• We assume A and to prove that B
• On contrary suppose that  B and
• Then prove B, it will be contradiction
Further analysis
• A  B  (A  B)  B Contradiction
• A  B  (A  B) is false
• Assuming (A  B) is true,
and discover a contradiction (such as A  A),
then conclude (A  B) is false, and so A  B.

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Problem: Proof by Contradiction

Prove:
[B  (B  C)]  C, by contradiction
Proof:
Suppose [B  (B  C)], to prove C
On contrary, assume C
C  [B  (B  C)] must be true
 C  [B  ( B  C)]
 C  [(B   B)  (B  C)]
 C  [f  (B  C)]
 C  B  C = C  C  B = f  B = f
 False, Contradiction  C
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Rules of Inference

• A rule of inference is a general pattern that allows us

to draw some new conclusion from a set of given
statements. If we know P then we can conclude Q.

Modus ponens
If {B  (B  C)} then {C}, example in last slide
Proof:
Suppose B  (B  C) then
B
BC

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Rules of Inference

Syllogism
If {A  B  B  C} then {A  C}
Proof
• Suppose A  B  B  C, To prove A  C
• B
• C

Rule of cases
If {B  C  B  C} then {C}
B, true, implies C true
 B, true, implies C true
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Two Valued Boolean Logic

1. Boolean values = B = {0, 1}, there are two binary

operations:
• + = or = 
• · = and = 
2. Closure properties:
  x, y  B, x + y  B
  x, y  B, x . y  B
3. Identity element:
• x+0=0+x=x
• x·1=1.x= x
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Two Valued Boolean Logic

4. Commutative:
• x+y=y+x
• x·y=y·x
5. Distributive:
• x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z)
• x + (y · z) = (x + y) · (x + z)
6. Complement:
  x  B,  x’  B such that
x + x’ = 1, x · x’ = 0

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Tautologies and Truth Table
Tautology:
• Any statement which is always true is called a tautology
Example
• Show [B  (B  C)]  C is a tautology:
Proof
B C (B  C) (B  (B  C)) (B  (B  C))  C
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
• For every assignment for B and C, the statement is True,
hence the above statement is a tautology.
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Probability as Analysis Tool
Elementary events
• Suppose that in a given situation an event, or an
experiment, may have any one, and only one, of k
outcomes, s1, s2, …, sk. Assume that all these
outcomes are mutually exclusive.
Universe
The set of all elementary events is called the
universe of discourse and is denoted
U = {s1, s2, …, sk}.
Probability of an outcome si
• Associate a real number Pr(si), such that
0  Pr(si)  1 for 1  i  k;
Pr(s1) + Pr(s2) + … + Pr(sk) = 1
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
 Event

Event
• Let S  U. Then S is called an event, and
Pr( S )   Pr( si )
si S

Sure event
• U = {s1, s2, …, sk}, if S = U
Pr( S )   Pr( si )  1
si S

Impossible event
• S = , Pr() = 0

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Arithmetic and Geometric Series
n
n(n  1)

i 1
i
2
n
n ( n  1)( 2 n  1) 2 n 3
 3n 2
n

i 1
i 
2

6

6
n
i (i n
 1)

k 1
i  i  i  ...  i 
k 2 n

i 1
k
 
n

2 i
 2 1
n
 i
i 1
2 i
 k  1 2 k 1
2
i 1

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

 Conclusion

• Propositional Logic
• Predicate Logic
• We have discussed various techniques of proving
• Truth Tables
• Logical Equivalence
• Counter Example
• Contraposition
• Contradiction
• Rule of Inference
• Probability can be used for average cost analysis
• Series and summation are very helpful in simplification

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design