Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FTNS-3101 Nutritional Biochemistry-1: Rahanur Alam
FTNS-3101 Nutritional Biochemistry-1: Rahanur Alam
FTNS-3101
Nutritional Biochemistry-1
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
Rahanur Alam
M.Sc. (TUM, Germany), B.Sc. (Hons) (DU)
Lecturer
Dept. of Food Technology and Nutrition Science
Noakhali Science and Technology University
Dept. of Food Technology and Nutrition Science
Noakhali Science and Technology University
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Glycogen, starch and disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and
maltose) are hydrolyzed to monosaccharide units in the
gastrointestinal tract.
-amilase
Dept. of Food Technology and Nutrition Science
Noakhali Science and Technology University
Glucose
sucrase
Fructose
Sucrose
Galactose lactase Glucose
Lactase hydrolyses
lactose into glucose
and galactose
Lactose
Glucose maltase Glucose
Maltase hydrolyses
maltose into two
glucose molecules
Maltose
Dept. of Food Technology and Nutrition Science
Noakhali Science and Technology University
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Only monosaccharides are absorbed
Ribose,
Glycogen
NADPH
Pyruvate Glycolysis
is activated if
energy is required
Dept. of Food Technology and Nutrition Science
Noakhali Science and Technology University
Acetyl CoA
• Catabolism of glucose in
aerobic conditions via
glycolysis and the citric
acid cycle
The glycolytic pathway consist of ten enzyme-
catalyzed reactions that begin with a glucose and
split it into two molecules of pyruvate
Glycolysis
(10 reactions)
can be
divided into
three stages
• In the 1st stage
(hexose stage)
2 ATP are
consumed per
glucose
• In the 3rd stage
(triose stage)
4 ATP are
produced
per glucose
• Net: 2
ATP
produced per
Stage 1, which is the conversion of glucose into
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, consists of three steps: a
phosphorylation, an isomerization, and a second
phosphorylation reaction.
The strategy
of these
initial steps
in glycolysis
is to trap
the glucose
in the cell
and form a
compound
that can be
readily
cleaved into
phospho-
rylated
three-
carbon units.
Stage 2 is the cleavage of the fructose
1,6-bisphosphate into two three-
carbon fragments dihydroxyacetone phosphate
and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
• Catalyzes a substrate-level
phosphorylation
• Metabolically irreversible
reaction
• Regulation both by
allosteric modulators and by
covalent modification
• Pyruvate kinase gene can be
regulated by various
hormones and nutrients
Net reaction of glycolysis
1. Aerobic conditions:
oxidation to acetyl CoA
which enters the citric acid
cycle for further oxidation
2. Anaerobic conditions
(muscles, red blood cells):
conversion to lactate
3. Anaerobic conditions
(microorganisms, yeast):
conversion to ethanol
Diverse
Fates of
Pyruvate
Metabolism of Pyruvate to Ethanol
Ethanol is formed from pyruvate in yeast and several other
microorganisms in anaerobic conditions.
Two reactions required:
The first step is the decarboxylation of pyruvate to
acetaldehyde.
Enzyme - pyruvate decarboxylase.
Coenzyme - thiamine pyrophosphate (derivative of the vitamin
thiamine B1)
The second step is the reduction of acetaldehyde to
ethanol. Enzyme - alcohol dehydrogenase (active site
contains a zinc). Coenzyme – NADH.
The conversion of glucose into ethanol is an example of alcoholic
fermentation.
The net result of alcoholic fermentation is:
Glucose+2Pi + 2ADP + 2H+ 2 ethanol + 2CO2 + 2ATP + 2H2O
Glyceraldehyde is then
phosphorylated to glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate, a glycolytic
intermediate, by triose kinase.
Fructose Is Converted to Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
Fructose can be phosphorylated to fructose 6-phosphate by
hexokinase.
Symptoms:
- vomiting, diarrhea after consuming milk,
-
enlargement of the liver, jaundice,
sometimes cirrhosis,
- cataracts,
-
lethargy and retarded mental development,
- markedly
elevated blood-galactose level
The absence of the
-trgaalnascftoesreaissefoiunndred blood
cells is a
ni dethfeinuitriinvee.diagnostic criterion.
The most common treatment is to remove galactose (and
Regulation of Glycolysis
The rate glycolysis is regulated to meet two major cellular needs:
(1) the production of ATP, and
(2) the provision of building blocks for synthetic reactions.
Phosphofructokinase 1
in the liver is a tetramer
of four identical
subunits.
The positions of the
catalytic and allosteric
sites are identical.
High levels of ATP allosterically inhibit the
phosphofructokinase 1 in the liver lowering its affinity for
fructose 6-phosphate.
AMP reverses the inhibitory action of ATP, and so the
activity of the enzyme increases when the ATP/AMP ratio
is lowered (glycolysis is stimulated as the energy charge
falls).
A fall in pH also inhibits phosphofructokinase 1 activity.
The inhibition of phosphofructokinase by H+ prevents
excessive formation of lactic acid and a precipitous drop in
blood pH (acidosis).
Phosphofructokinase 1 is inhibited by citrate, an
early intermediate in the citric acid cycle.
A high level of citrate means that biosynthetic precursors are
abundant and additional glucose should not be degraded for this
purpose.
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP) is a
potent activator of phosphofructokinase
1.
F-2,6-BP activates phosphofructokinase I by
increasing its affinity for fructose 6-phosphate
and diminishing the inhibitory effect of ATP.
Fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate
allosterically
activates pyruvate
kinase.
When the
blood-glucose
level is low, the
glucagon leads
to the
phosphoryla-
tion of
pyruvate
kinase, which
diminishes its
activity.
Regulation of
Inhibition
1)PFK-1 is Glycolysis
inhibited by ATP
and citrate
2)Pyruvate
kinase is
inhibited by ATP
and alanine
3)Hexokinase is
inhibited by
excess glucose
6-phosphate
Stimulation
1)AMP and fructose 2,6-
bisphosphate (F2,6BP) relieve
the inhibition of PFK-1 by
ATP
Synthesis of
glycogen
Glucose
Pentose phosphate
pathway
Glucose-6- Ribose,
Glycogen
NADPH
phosphate
Degradation of
glycogen
Gluconeogenesis
Glycolysi
s
Pyruvate
The Role of Pentose Phosphate
Pathway (phosphogluconate pathway)
Ribose 5-phosphate
isomerase
The pentose phosphate pathway ends with these five
reactions in some tissue.
In others it continue in nonoxidative mode to make
fructose 6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
These reactions link pentose phosphate pathway with
glycolysis.