Base Metal Alloys In

Prosthodontics

Dr Gauri Mulay.
 Contents
• Introduction to metals and alloys.
• History of alloys in dentistry.
• Classification of alloys
• Base metal alloys-
Classification
Composition
Properties
Manipulation
Biocompatibility
Advantages
Disadvantages
Clinical implications.
Metals

•
 Metals
• A metal is an element that ionizes
positively in solution.

• During ionization, metals release

electrons.

• All the metals have specific optical,

physical, chemical, thermal &
electrical properties & specific
applications in dentistry.
 Classification of Metals

• Metals used in dentistry are mainly

classified as

1. Noble metals

2. Precious Metals

3. Predominantly base metals. 

Structure of metals

A. Body Centered Cubic

B. Face centered cubic

C. Hexagonal close packed

 Alloys

• Alloy is defined as a metal containing two or more

elements at least one of which is a metal & all of
which are mutually soluble in the molten state.

• Use of pure metals is limited in dentistry.They are

commonly used in the form of alloys to enhance
their properties.
 History of alloys in dentistry

• At the beginning of 20th century the alloys were

predominantly gold based.
• In 1932 alloys were classified according to their
hardness in 4 types by ADA.
• Type I alloys- for inlays with little or no occlusal
contacts.
• Type II alloys- stronger, strength to tolerate some
occlusal contact such as with onlays.
• Type III alloys- were nearly twice as strong as
type I alloys and were the mainstay for full crowns
and fixed partial dentures.
 History of alloys in dentistry

• In 1948,to reduce tarnish of alloys in the mouth

palladium based alloys were introduced.
• Alloys for removable partial dentures consisted of
type IV gold The type IV gold alloys contained
enough palladium and copper to provide strength.
• In 1950s,special metal ceramic alloys were
introduced.
• In 1970s as gold became expensive cobalt-
chromium & nickel-chromium base metal alloys
became popular in dentistry.
• Today there is a wide variety of alloys available in
prosthodontics.
 Classification of Alloys
1. According to use-

• Alloys for full metal crowns & bridges

• Alloys for metal ceramic restorations.

• Alloys for removable partial dentures.

• Alloys for implants.

 Classification of Alloys

2. According to strength ( ADA

classification No 5)
• Type 1- Soft
• Type 2 - Medium
• Type 3 – Hard
• Type 4 – Extra hard.
 
 Classification of Alloys

3. According to nobility- ( ADA

specification 1984.)

• High Noble metal alloys- more than 60 wt% noble

metals and gold >40%

• Noble metal alloys –more than 25 wt% noble

metals.

• Predominantly base metal alloys.-less than 25 wt

% noble metals
 Classification of Alloys

4. According to major element constitution

• Gold alloys
• Silver alloys
• Palladium alloys
• Nickel alloys.
• Cobalt alloys
• Titanium alloys.
 Classification of Alloys

5. According to the no of elements present-

• Binary- Two elements
• Tertiary - Three elements.
• Quaternary- four elements & so on..
 Classification of Alloys

6. According to the phase

system-
• Single phase- composition is
homogenous through out.
Nobel metals.

• Multiple phase – areas of

different compositions.are
visible. Each phase has its own
grain structure.Base metal
alloys.
 Classification of Alloys

• Eutectic alloys- when the 2 or more metals

are not soluble in the solid state.
• Solid solution- when the metals remain
soluble in the solid state.
• Intermetallic compound- After the
solidification elements react to form a new
compound of specific composition.
 General Requirements of casting
alloys
1  Tarnish & corrosion resistant.
2 Sufficient strength.
3 Biocompatible- non-toxic & non-allergic.
4 Easy to melt, cast, cut , grind.& finish.
5 Good flow so as to duplicate details properly.
6 Should have minimal shrinkage on cooling after
casting.
7 Easy to solder.
 BASE METAL ALLOYS

• Alloys which contain little or no noble metals are

called base metal alloys.
 
• Classification- On the basis of uses-
• 1 For removable partial denture
• 2.For fixed partial denture- for full metal & for
metal ceramic systems.
• 3.For surgical implants.
 Classification of Base metal alloys
for full metal restorations
• On the basis of composition-
• Nickel –chromium- with or without
berillium
• Nickel-high chromium-high molybdenum
alloys
• Cobalt-chromium (high % of cr)
• Cobalt-chromium (low% of cr)
• Titanium alloys.
 Ni-Cr Alloys

• Nickel Chromium alloys (Lunorium,Ticonium)

 
• Composition- Basic elements-
• Nickel- 61 to 81%
• Chromium- 11 to 27% ( >16% high Cr)
• Molybdenum- 2 to 9% (> 6% high molybdenum)
 
 Composition of Ni-Cr alloys

• Minor additions-
• Beryllium- 0.5 to 2.0%
• Iron- 0.1 to 0.5%
• Silicon- 0.2 to 2.8%
• Copper- 0.1 to 1.6%
• Manganese- 0.1 to 3.0 wt%
• Cobalt- 0.4 to 0.5wt%
• Tin- 1.25 wt%
 Properties of Ni based alloys-

1 Color- White
2  Melting range- 1155 to 1300 0C
3  Density- 7.8 to 8.4 gm/cm3 light in weight
4  Castability- Technique sensitive.
5  Hardness & Workability- ranges from 175 to 360
VHN Much harder than nobel metal alloys.
Difficult to cut, grind, polish. In the mouth chair
side time required for occlusal adjustments is
more. Cutting & removing a defective crown also
becomes difficult .
 Properties-contd

6 Yeild strength- 310 to 828 Mpa. Stronger than

gold-palladium alloys.

7  Modulus of elasticity- ranges from 150 to 210

Mpa. They twice as stiff as the gold alloys. So
coping thickness can be kept 0.2 to0.3 mm where
as gold requires min 0.3 to 0.5 mm

8 Percent elongation- ranges from 10 to 28% This

gives an indication of the ductility
 Properties
9  Porcelain bonding- These alloys form an adequate
oxide layer which is essential for porcelain bonding.

10 Sag resistance- they are stable at porcelain firing

temperature.. They have a higher sag resistance.

11 Tarnish & corrosion resistance.- Good resistance to

tarnish & corrosion.Due to the property of passivation

12 Casting shrinkage- they have a higher casting

shrinkage as compared to gold alloys.
 Cobalt chromium alloys

• Trade name- Vitallium

• Supplied in small pallets.

Applications
• Cast partial removable denture framework.
• Crown and bridge.
• Metal Ceramics
 Composition of Co-Cr Alloys

• Cobalt- 55to 60 wt%

• Chromium- 25 to 27 wt%
• Nickel- 0 to 20 wt%
• Molybdenum- 0 to 7 wt%
• Iron- 0 to 5 wt%
• Carbon up to 0.5 wt %
 Properties of cobalt chromium
alloys-
• They have replaced type 4 gold alloys for making
RPDs because of their lower cost & good
mechanical properties.
• Density- 8 to 9 gm/cm3.Half that of gold alloys
• Fusion temperature- 1250oC to 1480oC
According to fusion temp is classified in to two
groups-
• Type 1-high fusing- liquidus temp is greater than
1300oC
• Type 2- low fusing- liquidus temperature less than
1300oC
 Properties of cobalt chromium alloys

• Modulus of elasticity- 225 MPa Good stiffness.

Thus casting can be thinner, thereby, decreasing the
weight of rpd.
• Hardness- 432 VHN. Thus, cutting,grinding &
finishing becomes difficult.
• Tarnish & corrosion resistance- Chromium oxide
layer formation prevents tarnish & corrosion.
• Hydrochlorite or other chlorine compounds that
may be present in the denture cleansing solutions
will cause corrosion of all chromium based alloys.
 Manipulation of base metal alloys by
investment casting method.
1.Ethyl silicate or phosphate bonded investments
should be used. Thermal expansion of these
investments compensates, in part, for the high
linear casting shrinkage of nickel and cobalt
chromium alloys.

2.Adequate spruing and mold venting should be

carried out. Casting accuracy depends upon sprue
length, number, attachment design, shape, location
and direction.
 Manipulation

3.Burnout temperature range -732c to 927c. 815c

being the most commonly used.

4.An induction melting unit provides the most reliable

means for attaining proper melting and casting
temperatures.

5.Excessive temperatures and overheating should be

avoided in order to prevent porosity in the casting.
 Manipulation

• After the casting, molds should be set aside and

bench cooled to room temperature before further
handling.

• High speed laboratory engines and special abrasive

discs and stones should be used for sprue removing
and finishing.
 Biological considerations and
precautions during casting

• Care should be taken to avoid inhalation of nickel

containing dust by wearing a face mask to avoid
lung and nasal neoplastic diseases.

• Work areas must be well equipped with adequate

air-exchange systems and should be kept free from
dust.

• Finishing and polishing procedures should be

carried out properly behind the transparent barrier.
 Biological considerations and
precautions during casting
• Beryllium which is present in many base metal
alloys is a potentially toxic substance and can
cause berylliosis (chemical pneumonitis) due to
inhalation of beryllium containing dust or fumes.
Can give flu like symptoms & granulomas in the
lungs.
• Adequate exhaust and filtration system should be
used.
• Beryllium containing alloys can cause contact
dermatitis. Gloves should be used to.
 Biocompatibility for the patients
• Nickel may produce allergic reactions in the form
of localized gingival inflammation.
• It is also a potential carcinogen. 10 to 20 % of the
population is hypersensitive to nickel.
• The release of Ni ions in to the surrounding tissues
due to corrosion is a primary concern .
• Women demonstrate higher sensitivity to Ni than
men because of sensitization caused by jewelry
containing Ni. ( J of Prosthet D 1986,56,4,507-9)
• Reduced pH can significantly increase Ni release
from the tested alloy.
 Allergic reactions of metal alloys

Inflammotory allergic Reaction

Following Insertion of a base
metal Fixed Partial Denture:‘
J Prosthod 1997;6:144-148

Patients with metal allergies have

been shown to have external
skin lesions.The patient’s arm
following a test with nickel,
chrome, molybdenum, and
beryllium metal alloy.
 Corrosion

• Corrosion of alloys occurs when elements in

the alloy ionize. Thus, the elements that are
initially uncharged inside the alloy lose
electrons and become positively charged ions
as they are released into solution.
 Corrosion
Corrosion can be measured by,
(1) looking at alloy for visible effects of loss of
atoms.
(2) measuring current flow from loss of electrons, or
(3) measuring released elements themselves.

Most biocompatibility risks of casting alloys are

associated with issue of elemental release.
 Corrosion
J Prosthet Dent 2002;87:351-63.

Severe corrosion in this When corrosion is severe,

specimen markedly ions from alloy can be
compromised physical released in sufficient
integrity and unacceptable quantities to discolor
surface. adjacent tissues
 Corrosion of base metal alloys
Depends on –
• Phase system- Total mass released from the
multiple-phase alloy is 30times (69 g) more than
from the single-phase alloy (1.9 g).
• Liability-certain elements have an inherently higher
tendency to be released from dental alloys,
regardless of alloy composition.
• Surrounding environment-Reduced Ph increases
corrosion of Ni alloys
• Chromium Content- Less than 20% increases
corrosion
 Liability

• Copper, nickel, and gallium are liable elements.

• Cadmium and zinc also have relatively high

liability and will tend to be easily released.

• Gold, palladium, and platinum have low liabilities

and are unlikely to be released at high levels.
However, elemental liabilities are not absolute.
Current issues on base metal toxicity

• Nickel and cobalt have been measured in tongue,

gingiva and other oral tissues in patients with
removal partial dentures.Levels are low.
• Systemic presence of elements is not significant.
• Corrosion in the mouth can cause local toxicity,
allergy and carcinogenesis
• The amount of release from any alloy is directly
proportional to the number of castings present in
the mouth.
• Nickel released from nickel-based prostheses may
approach the 400 g/day
 Carcinogenicity of base metals

• Mutagenicity describes an alteration of the base

pair sequence of DNA (a mutation).
• Carcinogenicity means that alterations in the DNA
have caused a cell to grow and divide
inappropriately. Carcinogenicity results from
several mutations.
• Cobalt and Nickel possibly carcinogenic
• Cr is not mutagenic but carcinogenic
• Cu mutagenic but not carcinogenic
 Comparison of Co-cr to Ni-cr alloys
( DCNA-2007,51,3,603-627)

Property Co Cr Ni Cr

Elastic modulus More Less

and strehgth
Ductility Less More

Corrosion More Less

resistance
Sensitivity Less More
Advantages of base metal alloys as full
metal restorations

1.Lighter in weight
2.Good physical and mechanical properties
3.Good corrosion resistance because of
passivating effect.
4. Less expensive.-economical.
 Disadvantages of base metal alloys as
full metal restorations
1 Technique sensitive.
2 Complexity in production of dental appliance.
Laboratory labor is more costly.
3 High fusing temperatures.
4 Extremely hard. So requires special equipments for
finishing. More chair side time
5 Biocompatibility issues. ( Ni and Be )
6 High hardness can cause wear of opposing
restorations or natural teeth contacting the
restoration.
 Alloys for metal ceramic system.
• Ability to produce surface oxides.

• High melting temperature than ceramic firing

temperature.

• Compatibility of coefficient of thermal expansion

• Adequate stiffness and strength of the alloy is

important for fixed bridges and posterior crowns.

• High sag resistance since copings are thin to

prevent distortion.
 Base metals for metal ceramic systems.
1. Nickel chromium with or without beryllium
2. Cobalt chromium alloys
• Molybdenum is added to decrease the coefficient of
thermal expansion.
• Beryllium improves castability and provides better
bond between ceramic and metal.
(J Prosthet Dent 1998;80:570-4.).
• Ni-Cr-Be alloys are considered to have superior
properties for metal ceramic systems.
• Co-Cr alloys are used if patients are sensitive to Ni and
biocompatibility issues of beryllium are of concern.
 Ceramic metal bonding.
• Bond results due to diffusion between the surface
oxides on the alloy and in the ceramic. Gives good
chemical bonding.

• Surface roughness of the alloy provides mechanical

bonding. Airborne particle abrasion of the coping
enhances bonding.

• Ceramic should wet the metal surface and fuse

without voids to prevent debonding.(contact angel
60 degrees or less)
Bond of base metals with ceramics
(J Prosthet Dent 2005;93:64-9.)
Optical microscope photograph
of the fracture surface for a
representative metal-ceramic
specimen.

A, Ni-Cr alloy; B, Metal-

porcelain interaction region;
C, Porcelain

A, Co-Cr alloy; B, Metal-

porcelain interaction region;
C, Porcelain
 Advantages of base metals as metal
ceramic alloys.

• They are economical.

• Thin copings can be produced.
• Have high sag resistance.
• Low density permits more castings per
ounce.
• Can be etched.
 Disadvantages of base metals as metal
ceramic alloys.
• Nickel and beryllium content can have potentially
harmful effects on technicians and patients.

• Oxide layer if not of optimum thickness can cause

bond failure. (Be controls oxide formation)

• High hardness can cause wear of opposing teeth.

• Proper melting and casting requires skill.

Alloys for removable cast partial dentures

• Alloys used for cast partial dentures are-

1 Cobalt Chromium
2 Cobalt chromium nickel ( 19% nickel)
3 Nickel chromium ( Lower carbon level)
4 Titanium.
 Disadvantages of base metals for
denture frameworks.
• Allergic responses especially to nickel have been
observed.
• But most adverse tissue reactions are because of
improper design or poor fit.
• Adjustments during insertion are difficult because of
hardness of alloy
• Clasps cast from non ductile base metals can break
in service.
• Hardness of alloy can cause wear of opposing
dentition.
 Base metal alloys as surgical alloys
• Presently titanium is the most widely used alloy
for implants.
• But chromium containing alloys are also used in
bone plates, screws, intermedullary bars, splints
and metallic obturators.
• Surgical ticonium and vitallium can be used as
surgical alloys.
• But their ionization in the solution leading to
corrosion and post operative pain,swelling,
necrosis make their use limited in surgery though
they are economical.
• Stainless steel alloys are used in making healing
collars, transfer copings and implant analogs.
Clinical Implications
 Effect of bleaching
Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2002 29; 1014–1019

• The application of 10% carbamide peroxide solution in

night guard bleaching regime can cause corrosion of
Ni–Cr alloys

• However, if the average application time of bleaching

agents is short it is beneficial and can reduce elemental
release.
 Effect of bleaching agents
Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2002, 29; 1014–1019

Time behavior of the alloys in 10% carbamide

peroxide solution. (a) Gold base alloys. (b) Base
metal alloys.
Effect of tooth brushing on elemental release
J Prosthod 1999;8:245-257.

• Tooth brushing may produce increased elemental

release because the surface layers on alloys that
inhibit elemental release arc very thin .

• The Ni-Cr alloy was the most susceptible to

elemental release when toothpastes and acids were
combined with brushing, whereas the noble and
high-noble alloys were more resistant to such
conditions.
 Effect of Ph on base metal alloys.
Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2000; 27; 563–575

• Exposure of Ni-based alloys to relevant levels of

reduced pH can significantly increase Ni release
from the tested alloy.

• High-noble and noble alloys were resistant to this

effect and probably release a lower amount of
elements into the body locally and systemically
compared with Ni-based alloys.
 The effects of recasting on the
cytotoxicity of base metal alloys.
J Prosthet Dent 2005;93:158-63.

• Recasting increases the element release and

cytotoxicity of base metal alloys.

• The cytotoxicity of the Co-Cr recast alloys is more

than the Ni-Cr alloys.

• The release of Cu remarkably increases after

recasting.
Effect of Proteins on base metal alloys
• Proteins can bind to metal ions and transport them
away from the interface

• Proteins can also get absorbed on the surface of

alloy decreasing its passivating effect.

• Proteins can thus decrease corrosion resistance of

alloys

• But the amount of the released elements was well

below the dietary intake levels of these elements.
 Effect of Preconditioning on base
metal alloys
J Prosthet Dent 1999;81:591-6.
• Preconditioning of casting alloys in a biologic
solution like saline, cell culture medium, and
saline with 3% BSA solution (bovine serum
albumin) decreases subsequent cytotoxicity.
• Preconditioning casting alloys removed liable
(easily released) elements initially, which in most
cases led to a decrease in alloy cytotoxicity.
• Conditioning before cementation could decrease
exposure of healing oral tissues to potentially
harmful elements.
 Effect of soldering on base metals
J Prosthet Dent 2005;94:435-9

• Soldering or brazing may be required to add

proximal contacts, repair casting voids, and
connect attachments or retainers,repair of cpd.
• Soldering is a process in which a molten filler
metal wets and fills the gap between the parent
metal surfaces
• Soldered joints may enhance corrosion but have
significant tensile strength.
 Effect of soldering on metal ceramic
bond strength.
J Prosthet Dent 2005;94:435-9.

• It is found that solder does not change porcelain

bonding properties.

• But though soldering alloy did not decrease the

metal-ceramic bond strength of porcelain, fixed
partial denture metal frameworks may be prone to
failure when soldered.
 Effect of welding on corrosion
resistance and tensile strength
J Prosthet Dent 2006;96:273-82

• Welding is a joining process in which parent

metals fuse and form the joint with or without a
filler alloy. Laser welding is commonly performed.

• Laser-welded joints exhibit excellent corrosion

resistance, but their tensile strength is limited due
to the shallow weld penetration depth.
 Etched cast restorations
J Prosthet Dent 2005;93:1-7.
• Electrochemical etching of Ni-Cr
alloys helps in retaining resin
bonded metal fixed bridges.
• The surface to be etched is
cleaned with an air abrasive with
50 mm particle size aluminum
oxide.
• The etching occurs when a
current passes through the acid
and turns the etched alloy surface
black .
 Summary
Base metal casting
alloys

Removable partial Fixed

Surgical implants
denture partial denture

Co Cr,
Co Cr, Co Cr Ni, Co Cr molyb,
Titanium,
Ni Cr, Ti. Ni Cr Co. Ti
Ni Cr.

With beryllium Without Beryllium

 Conclusion
• Dentists should be aware of the corrosion properties
and biocompatibility of any alloy they use.

• In the absence of detailed data on corrosion for an

alloy, use of high-noble and noble alloys of single-
phase microstructure will minimize biologic risk.

• Patients with Ni allergy may have sensitivity for

cobalt. Such patients should be tested to rule out
allergy before giving Co-Cr restoration.
 References.
• Phillip’s Science of Dental Materials
• Craig’s Restorative Dental materials.
• Dental Materials and their selection- William
O’Brien
• Introduction to metal ceramic technology. Naylor
• Allergic Reaction Following Insertion of a Pd-Cu-
Au Fixed Partial Denture: Paul A. Hamen, ‘J
Prosthod 1997;6:144-148
• Accelerated toxicity testing of casting alloys and
reduction of intraoral release of elements Steven K.
Nelson . J Prosthet Dent 1999;81:715-20.
• Dental Materials DCNA-2007,51,3,603-627
 References
• Shear bond strengths of a ceramic system to alternative
metal alloys Renata Marques J Prosthet Dent
2005;93:64-9.
• In vitro evaluation of the effect of a current bleaching
agent on the electrochemical corrosion of dental alloys
SENAY CANAY Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2002
29; 1014–1019
• Accelerated toxicity testing of casting alloys and
reduction of intraoral release of elements, Steven K.
Nelson J Prosthet Dent 1999;81:715-20.
• The effects of recasting on the cytotoxicity of base
metal alloys Ahmad S. J Prosthet Dent 2005;93:158-63.
 References
• Effect of welding on corrosion resistance and tensile
stregth. Rok Zupancic J Prosthet Dent 2006;96:273-
82
• Effect of soldering on the metal-ceramic bond
strength of an Ni-Cr base alloy Ioannis Nikellis J
Prosthet Dent 2005;94:435-9.
• Effect of Ph on metal alloys.Journal of Oral
Rehabilitation 2000; 27; 563–575.
• Effect of tooth brushing on elemental release J
Prosthod 7999;8:245-257.
• Recent advances in etched cast restorations Gerald
Barrack,J Prosthet Dent 2005;93:1-7.
 
Thank You