Self-engineering –

Technological Challenges
Professor Raj Roy and Dr Sam Brooks
Self-Engineering
(SE)
Working Definition:

“An ability designed and built into a system to independently

identify any loss or potential loss of function, and then
automatically restore the functionality fully or partially to
maintain its availability and improve system resilience.” [1]
[1] Brooks and Roy, An overview of self-engineering systems, Journ.
of Eng. Des. (Manuscript submitted)
Self-engineering characteristics
1. It must have the ability to restore or
partially restore its lost function or capacity.
2. It must be built into the system, not added
later when required.
3. There must be no human/user intervention,
any process, response and behaviour should
be automatic.
4. The aim should be to avoid/reduce
maintenance, prolong life and/or increase
the system resilience and robustness.
Autonomous vs Self-engineering systems
 Many different definitions for autonomous systems exist for
different sectors.
 Both systems aim to:
 Be fully autonomous and not rely on human input.
 Maintain their system and its functions
 Autonomous systems is a much boarder category referring to
automation of many different tasks.
 SE is specific only to processes which respond to a loss of or
degradation of function.
 SE could be part of an autonomous system but not all
autonomous systems are SE.
Through-life Engineering Services (TES)
 What is TES?
 Services which support and enabling the
development and application of PSS and
servitisation businesses for complex
engineering products or systems.
 TES research
 Currently the focus is on monitoring,
diagnostics, and prognostics technologies
used to gather data and knowledge on
performance, degradation and failures.
 Self-engineering is an example of a TES
PSS – Product-Service System
Self-engineering industry
 TES have been identified as a key market with a
potential associated worth of £31.6bn in the UK [2].
 Self-engineering is a through-life engineering
service (TES) and can support PSS and servitisation
businesses.
 Currently industry using TES focus on services such
as continuous and predictive maintenance [3]. SE
also focuses on maintenance and uses these service
but aims to reduce human input need
[2] EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing “A national strategy
 Industries using TES include: Aerospace, Defence, for engineering services report”, 2016,
[3] Roy et al. “Continuous maintenance and the future –
Automotive and Rail industries Foundations and technological challenges”, CIRP Annals -
Manufacturing Tech. , 2016
Why do we want self-engineering?
1) To support future servitisation business
Example: Mobility as a Service (MaaS)
 Report on MaaS published in the UK, based on research
and workshops with expert [4].
 Transport is changing and becoming more service
focuses; customers will have access to self-driving cars to
rent rather than own.
 Strategies such as TES and self-engineering are needed
to help increase availability and reduce maintenance
costs.

[4] Elsy, Jennings and Roy, “Through-life Engineering Services for Mobility as
a Service (TES for MaaS)”, 2018
Why do we want self-engineering?
2) To extend the life of products or systems.
Example: Wind turbines Microcapsule self-
healing composites,
could be used to
maintain blades,
image from [5]

A control system
used to minimise
loads on tower
[5] White et al. “ Autonomic healing of polymer composites” Nature, 2001 when damaged,
[6] Stock et al. “Distributed Control of Wind Farm Power Set Points to Minimise image from [6]
Fatigue Loads” Proc. American Control Con., 2020
Why do we want self-engineering?
3) For repairs hazardous for humans.
Example: Power line maintenance Self-heal the
cables, image
from [7]

Use an
automated
robot like
LineScout,
image from [8]
[7] https://www.techexplorist.com/new-technique-self-healing-flexible-electronics/21848/
[8] Pouliot et al. “LineScout Technology Opens the Way to Robotic Inspection and
Maintenance of High-Voltage Power Lines”, IEEE Power and energy Tech. Sys. 2015
Why do we want self-engineering?
4) For when humans can’t access a system.
Example: During a pandemic
• Making repairs to building or equipment
inside isolation wards becomes difficult.
• The risk of contamination might make it to
dangerous to enter.
• Life support machines such as ventilators
need to keep operating reliably to keep
patients alive.
• SE strategies could maintain equipment
and building services despite damage and Covid-19 hospital ward in Italy, image from [9]
degradation to system.
[9]
https://news.sky.com/story/coronavirus-they-call-it-the-apocalypse-insid
e-italys-hardest-hit-hospital-11960597
 Self-engineering Taxonomy

[1] Brooks and Roy, An overview of self-engineering systems, Journ. of Eng. Des. (Manuscript submitted)
.
Use of terms in
journal papers

Full graph for all terms, taken from [1]

 Title and abstracts of papers searched for key terms.

 Largest increase over the last 50 years in the use of:
1) Self-healing
Graph excluding self-healing and self-organising data, taken
from [1] 2) Self-organising
[1] Brooks and Roy, An overview of self-engineering systems, Journ. of
3) Self-repairing
Eng. Des. (Manuscript submitted)
Use of terms in patents granted
 Titles, claims and abstracts of
patents granted in EU, US and
Japan were searched for key
terms.
 Largest increase over the last 50
years in the use of:
1) Self-organising
2) Self-sealing
3) Self-healing
[1] Brooks and Roy, An overview of self-engineering systems, Journ. Full graph for all terms, taken from [1]
of Eng. Des. (Manuscript submitted)
With and without control
 SE systems were found to be divided into
two categories, those with and those
without a form of control.
 Flow charts of general processes in each are
shown
 Without Control – The process is often
reactive and is triggered by the damage.
Fast but often has a limited response range.
 With Control – There is processing,
monitoring and verification of damage
and/or the possible response. More
complex but it can respond to more
Flow chart of SE
situation. without control
Flow chart of SE with
control
Key stages of SE
 Monitoring – the system has a sensor Monitoring
or procedure that enables it to
register a loss of function.
 Trigger – this initiates the SE response,
it could be damage, degradation, or a Trigger
reduction in function or performance.
 Response - this is the action the
system takes to restore function or Response
repair itself.
Examples of current systems
1) Mechanical systems
 Self healing materials
 Self-sharpening blades
2) Civil engineering
 Self-sealing/sealing concreate
3) Electrical system
 Self-healing circuits
 Self-reconfiguration and
redundancy
4) Mechatronic systems
 Self-assembly
 Self-adapting
 Maintenance robotics
5) Biological systems
 Self-reconfiguring jellyfish
 Self-adaption hand wrinkling
Mechanical – Self-healing materials
 Largest area of research, materials are
autonomous and non-autonomous.
 Autonomous systems respond
autonomously due to damage without
outside stimulus, such as microvascular
or microcapsule systems [5].
 Non-autonomous system rely on
outside stimuli such as heat or light to Video of Microcapsule
autonomous self-healing, taken
trigger healing. Diels-Alder reactions from [10] original paper in [5].
have been used to heal robot hands
using heat [12].
[10] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsSiEeDOC7o&ab_channel=chunyizhi
[11]
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/aug/07/robot-heal-thyself-scientist Cut being made on and healing of self-
s-develop-self-repairing-machines
[12] Roels et al. 2019, “A Multi-Material Self-Healing Soft Gripper” Int. Con. Soft healing plastic robot gripper. Image from
Robotics [11], paper in [12]
Mechanical – Self-repair mechanism
 A self-repair method for a 4-bar
mechanism was created by researchers
to respond to rigid element deformation.
 When one bar is damaged its length
changers after remodelling. The
remaining bars can be adjusted to
maintain close to the original mechanism
path.
 The mechanism was only tested in
simulations not in real life and could only
deal with a few types of failure.
[13] Bell et al., “Theoretical Design of a Self-rectifying 4-bar Linkage Mechanism” Pictures of self-rectifying 4-bar linkage
Procedia CIRP., 2013 Image from [13], provided under CC 3.0 licence
Mechanical – Self-repair bolt
SMA washer can
be heated in
 A design for a self-repairing bolted plate using response to
shape memory alloy was presented by [14]. Bolt loosening bolt
 Piezoelectric sensor register when a bolt is
loosening due to vibrations, heat can then be
applied to a shape memory alloy (SMA) washer
to add torque to prevent any movement in the
bolted plates.
 Currently the process is not fully automated Nut
and heating the SMA effectively can be difficult. Washer. In some
designs a
 Other authors have used a SMA bolt instead of piezoelectric
a washer to perform the same task [15]. washer can be
Pictures of self-repairing (self- used to sense
[14] Peairs et al., “Practical issues of activating self-repairing bolted joints”., Smart
tightening) bolt, picture created using
Materials And Structures 2004
information from [14]. loosening
[15] Travassos et al. “Fabrication and thermomechanical characterization of a new
Cu–Al–Ni–Mn–Ti shape memory alloy bolt” J Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng., 2017
Mechanical – Self-repair bridge
 Tensegrity structures are lightweight, flexible structures made up
of tensioned cables and struts in a continuous self-stresses state
with cables in tension and struts in compression.
 Previous authors modelled and built a self-diagnosing and self-
repairing tensegrity structure [16] a similar approach was applied
to a bridge structure [17].
 The critical struts can extend or contract, creating different forces
and enabling the structure to diagnose where a load or damage
has occurred.
 The structure contains more cables and supports than required Diagram of a Tensegrity
for stability. The repair process uses this redundancy and changes structures and a
cable tension to reduce the peak load on the cables. Tensegrity bridge from
 Only the structural stability is maintained not all the functionality. [17]

[16] Adam and Smith “Self Diagnosis and Self Repair of an Active Tensegrity Structure”.,
Journal of Structural Engineering 2007
[17] Korkmaz et al. “Self-repair of a tensegrity actuation
pedestrian bridge through grouped” Proc. Int. Con. Comp. in Civil and Build Eng.., 2010
Mechanical – Self-sharpening blade
Self-sharpening
ploughshears
Sea urchin Teeth - Image © Paul Kay
 Hardening one side of a blade and
not the other creates a blade which
erodes on one side and maintains a
sharp edge.
 First created by accident in 1803 by
Robert Ransome and used for
ploughsheares [18]
 Sea urchin teeth use a similar
mechanism [19]
[18] Brunt, “Mechanical innovation in the industrial revolution: the case of plough
design.” Econ. Hist. Rev. 2003
[19] Killian et al., “Self-sharpening mechanism of the sea urchin tooth,” Adv. Funct.
Mater. 2011.
Civil engineering – Self-sealing concrete
 Bacteria is added to concrete mortar
either freeze dried or in microcapsules
 Water penetrating crack activates the
bacteria which creates calcium
carbonate sealing the crack.
 The problem is keeping the bacteria
alive.
 Not suitable for all concrete structures
because it requires water.
[20] Pungrasmi, et al., “Evaluation of Microencapsulation Techniques for MICP
Bacterial Spores Applied in Self-Healing Concrete,” Sci. Rep., 2019 Pictures of concrete with and without bacteria self-sealing
Image from [20], provided under CC 4.0 licence
Electronics - Self-reconfiguring devices
 Built-in Self Test (BIST) and Built-in Self-
Repair (BISR) functions are used with
integrated circuits and electronic parts. Reconfiguration Mechanism
 BISR is actually a reconfiguration
process which replaces faulty parts with
spare unused ones. BISR

Spare Cells
 One example is BISR applied to RAMs RAM
on integrated circuits [21]. Spare
memory cells are used instead of faulty BIST
ones.
Basic repair process diagram, replicated from
[21] Nair and Bonifus, “An efficient built-in self-repair scheme for multiple RAMs,” information in [21]
RTEICT 2017 - 2nd IEEE Int. Conf. Recent Trends Electron. Inf. Commun. Technol.
Proc., 2018.
Electrical – Self-healing circuits
 Broken wires or connection can
desirable electronics.
 Initial research looking at self-
healing cables has shown some
success.
 However, they are reliant on
expensive materials and
Examples of Galinstan based self-healing wires [22] currently only demonstrated in
the lab.
[22] Li et al., “A galinstan-based inkjet printing system for highly stretchable
electronics with self-healing capability,” 2016.
Robotics - Self-assembly

 Self-assembling mechanisms have

been tested on robotic swarms.
 The swarms can reconfigure and
assemble into optimum shapes for a
set function.
 In this example (from [23]) robots
self-assemble into a tree like
structure with the aim of maximising
light exposure. Removing one robot
causes to assembly to re-assemble. Self-assembling Killobot swarm robots
[23] Divband Soorati et al. “Photomorphogenesis for robot self-assembly: towards a light source. Image taken from
adaptivity, collective decision-making, and self-repair,” Bioinspir. Biomim. 2019.
[23], CC By 3.0.
Robotics - Self-adaptation
 As robots become more autonomous
they need to be able to respond to
damage or degradation.
 A trial and error modelling system
was implemented on two robots [24].
 A limb or actuator was disabled and
the system had to adapt and find a
new way to complete its function.
 The video shows two of the tests
completed.

Video clip taken from [25] and original paper in [24].

[24] Cully et al. 2015, Robots that can adapt like animals, Nature
[25] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-c17RKh3uE&ab_channel=Jean-BaptisteMouret
Robotics – Automated maintenance
 As mechatronic technology has
grown so has robotic maintenance
 Limitations of current systems:
 Not full autonomous
 Only focus on monitoring and movement
not the repair or response to damage
 Focused on external damage not internal
 Maintenance requires high level of skill
and experience which robots currently
don’t have Top left: Rope robotics wind turbine repair [26]. Top right:
LineScout power line repair [8]. Bottom: BladeBug wind
turbine repair [27].

[26] https://roperobotics.com/
[27] https://bladebug.co.uk/
Bioinspired SE
 Biology is full of self-engineering solutions and Example – Animal self-adaption [24]
sources of inspiration
 Evaluation of biological showed that self-
engineering systems often utilise multiple
methods
 Skin healing utilises a self-sealing and self-
repairing phase
 Biology systems which have already inspired
solutions and could inspire future solutions are
identified.

[24] Cully et al., “Robots that can adapt like animals”, Nature, 2015
Self-engineering in Biological
Wrinkling of our hand [28]
 Wrinkles channel water away and improve grip
 Combined local cell swelling and autonomous
nervous system, two different control systems
interacting.
 Damage to the nervous system stops the process
Picture of fingers wrinkling when held in water [28].
[28] Sáez and Zöllner, 2017, Mechanics Reveals the Biological
Trigger in Wrinkly Fingers, Ann. Biomed. Eng.
Moon Jellyfish reconfiguration [29]
 Jellyfish need tentacles to swim and eat
 Removing a tentacle triggers self-reconfiguration to
become symmetrical
 Only mechanical stress and strain forces are used and
without conscious control
Picture of moon Jellyfish reconfiguring after limbs are removed [29],
Copyright 2015 National Academy of Sciences.
[29] Abrams et al., 2015, Self-repairing symmetry in jellyfish through
mechanically driven reorganization, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A
Bioinspired SE
Bone remodelling (self-repair) [30]
 An example of a process where we have
developed individual processes but
they are not combines into a fully
automated repair process as in nature
1. Micro crack in the material is found
2. Material removal around the crack is
triggered before crack grows too big
3. New material is deposited in the gap left

[30] Taylor et al., 2007, Living with cracks: Damage

Image showing phases of bone remodelling linked
and repair in human bone, Nature materials
to similar manufacturing procedures.
Common problems with Bioinspiration
Biology is not always best.

Designers can:
 Fix on first problem-solution match found
 Oversimplify complex biological mechanisms
 Utilise less effective mechanism than
currently used.
 Replicate unnecessary redundancy from
biology
Complexity
Time-independent
 It is important to understand the Real complexity
complexity of systems. High complexity
can make systems costly to manage Time- Time-
dependent Suh – Theory of independent
implementing changes difficult. Periodic Complexity imagery
 Five SE systems were analysed using Suh’s complexity complexity

Design-centric complexity theory and Time-dependent

Axiomatic design
 Function Requirements (FR) and Design
Parameters (DP) were identified and put
into a design matrix for each system.
Combinational
complexity
[31] Suh, N. “A Theory of Complexity, Periodicity and the Design
Axioms.” Research in Engineering Design. 1999
[32] Suh, N. , “Complexity in Engineering.” CIRP Annals. 2005
 Example – Vasoconstriction/Vasodilation
 Humans would not have survived without the ability to
adapt and control body temperature.
 Blood vessels play an essential part in regulating
temperature, vasoconstriction (narrowing of the blood
vessels) occurs close to the skin, reducing heat loss in cold
environments. The reverse is also seen in hot
environments, where blood vessels expand to release more
heat.
 The autonomic nervous system provides centralised control
of the process, signals to the smooth muscles surrounding Vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Image from [28], CC
veins generate expansion or contraction. BY-SA 4.0

 This is an example of a self-adapting or self-optimising

mechanism used to control temperature and prevent
overheating. [33] http://www.scientificanimations.com/wiki-images/
Vasoconstriction - FR FR - Regulate
temperature

FR1 – Change FR2 – Mange

blood vessel size signals

FR1.1 FR1.2 - FR2.1 - FR2.2 -

FR2.3 - Output
-Movement of Register Monitor Manage
calcium signal
muscles calcium signal temperature calcium signal

Vasoconstriction - DP DP – Temperature
regulator

DP2 –
DP1 – Smooth
Sympathetic
muscle
nervous system

DP1.1 – DP1.2 - DP2.1 – DP2.2 – DP2.3 –

Contraction/relaxation Calcium signal Temperature Controlling Signal
actuator receiver sensor cells generator
Design matrix - Function level 1
𝐹 𝑅1 𝑥 0 𝐷 𝑃1
[ 𝐹𝑅 2
 
] [
=
0 𝑥 ][ 𝐷𝑃 2 ]
Design matrix - Function level 2
  𝐹 𝑅 1.1 𝑥 0 0 0 0 𝐷 𝑃 1.1

[ ][𝐹𝑅 1.2

𝐹𝑅 2.2
𝐹𝑅 2.3
0
𝐹𝑅 2.1 = 0
0
0
𝑥
0
0
0
0
𝑥
𝑥
0
0
0
𝑥
𝑥
0
0
0
𝑥
][ ]
𝐷𝑃 1.2
𝐷𝑃 2.1
𝐷𝑃 2.2
𝐷𝑃 2.3
Complexity – Shu four categories
1. Real
 The system is uncoupled, the only coupled part is the nervous system. There would be
complex interactions with other body function and inputs not considered here. For example
vein size also changes in response to damage, drugs, oxygen requirements and blood flow
rate.
2. Imaginary
 Can not be analysed because it requires a designer.
3. Combinational
 Muscle degradation over time will reduce the responsiveness of the system, also blood
clotting and vein contact with the skin will change with age.
4. Periodic
 Could be considered periodic as all cells will be replaced
SE Complexity
framework

3 Key Factors
1. Redundancy – Quantity
utilised in SE
2. Repeatability - Number of
possible repeated responses.
3. Self-control – Method of
controlling the SE process.
[34] Brooks and Roy, “A Complexity Framework For Self-engineering Diagram showing different levels of complexity for each factor of the
Systems”, Sm. Sus. Man. Sys. (Manuscript submitted) SE complexity framework, from [34]
Verification of Framework
 Eight Experts in areas related to SE were used to
validate the complexity framework.
 Experts assigned a score for high, medium or low for
each complexity factor.
 There was agreement for 21/24 of the factors for each
system evaluated. [24] Cully et al., “Robots that can adapt like animals”, Nature, 2015
Most common
Example from results: Self-adapting Robot [24] System Factor Our ranking
expert ranking

 Our rankings and experts agreed for: High (3/8)

 Redundancy – Medium because the robot can move on Repeatability Medium Medium (3/8)
three limbs (without 3 others) Self-adapting robot
limb Redundancy Medium Medium (7/8)
 Self-control – Medium because there is a central controller
 Repeatability – Experts didn’t agree on a category. The Self-control Medium Medium (5/8)
control system can repeat indefinitely but is limited number
of limbs leading to authors score of medium.

[24] Cully et al., “Robots that can adapt like animals”, Nature, 2015
Complexity framework was tested on lots of biological systems

Graph showing complexity

score for 22 SE processes
identified in biology. Each
has a complexity score from
0 (low complexity) and 1
(high complexity) for
redundancy, repeatability
and self-control (called
control here).
No clear correlation
identified.
Future research challenges
 Automating and integrating at all stages of self-
engineering systems. Current research focuses on the
monitoring system predominantly.
 Replication of biological mechanism of repair and
maintenance in engineering product.
 More development of mechanical or physical self-
engineering methods outside of self-healing materials and
robotics.
 New design tools and strategies to help create and
develop self-engineering systems to higher TRLs.
Questions
Presenter:
Professor Rajkumar Roy
City, University of London