Nuclear Processes

C. Give applications of radioactive

elements in medicine, industry and
environment
 RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
• Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes, are
species of chemical elements that are
produced through the natural decay of atoms.

• Exposure to radiation generally is considered

harmful to the human body, but radioisotopes
are highly valuable in medicine, particularly in
the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
 RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
• Chromium-51: Used to label red blood cells
and quantify gastro- intestinal protein loss.

• Cobalt-60: Formerly used for external beam

radiotherapy.

• Erbium-169: Use for relieving arthritis pain in

synovial joints.
 RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
• Iodine-125: Used in cancer Brach therapy
(prostate and brain), also diagnostically to
evaluate the filtration rate of kidneys and to
diagnose deep vein thrombosis in the leg.

• It is also widely used in radioimmunology-

tests to show the presence of hormones in
tiny quantities.
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• Iodine-131: Widely used in treating thyroid
cancer and in imaging the thyroid; also in
diagnosis of abnormal liver function, renal
(kidney) blood flow and urinary tract
obstruction.

• A strong gamma emitter, but used for beta

therapy. Iodine used for curing thyroid cancer
 RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
• Iridium-192: Supplied in wire form for use as
an internal radiotherapy source for cancer
treatment (used then removed).

• Sodium-24: For studies of electrolytes

within the body.
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• Xenon-133: Used for pulmonary (lung)
ventilation studies.

• Phosphorus-32: Used in the treatment of

polycythemia Vera (excess red blood cells).
Useful in the identification of malignant tumors
because cancerous cells tend to accumulate
phosphates more than normal cells do.
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• Technetium-99: Used with radiographic
scanning devices, is valuable for studying the
anatomic structure of organs.

• Imaging with radioactive technetium-99 can

help diagnose bone infections in young
children at the earliest possible stage.
 RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
• Tracers: bone scans, kidney scans, and others.

• Radioactive isotopes and radioactively labeled

molecules are used as tracers to identify
abnormal bodily processes. This is possible
because some natural elements tend to
concentrate in certain parts of the body: iodine
in the thyroid, phosphorus in the bones,
potassium in the muscles.
 Examples of radioactive tracer medical
procedures:
• Myocardial perfusion imaging maps the blood
flow to the heart, allowing physicians to see
whether a patient has heart disease and
determine what kind of treatment will be
most effective.
• Bone scans can detect the spread of cancer six
to 18 months sooner than X-rays.
• Kidney scans are much more sensitive than X-
rays or ultrasound in fully evaluating kidney
function.
 RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
• Cobalt-60 is used as a gamma source for
irradiating cancers.

• Radioactive “seeds” are implanted in tumors.

Commonly used isotopes for this application
depend on where in the body they will be
used and how long they want the radiation to
last. Iridium-192, Iodine-125, Palladium-103
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• Some “bone seeking” isotopes are used for
treating bone cancer, Strontium-89 Samarium
153, and Rhenium-186.

• Lutetium-177 tends to attach to the surface of

nerve cancer tissue.

• Bismuth-213 and Lead-212 are used for targeted

Alpha therapy where antibodies loaded with
radioactive atoms target cancer tissue.
 RADIOISOTOPES IN INDUSTRY
• Automobile Industry – to test steel quality in the
manufacture of cars and to obtain the proper
thickness of tin and aluminum
• Aircraft Industry – to check for flaws in jet engines
• Construction – to gauge the density of road surfaces
and subsurfaces
• Pipeline Companies – to test the strength of welds
• Oil, Gas, And Mining Companies – to map the
contours of test wells and mine bores, and
• Cable Manufacturers – to check ski lift cables for
cracks.
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• The isotope 241 is used in many smoke
detectors for homes and businesses (as
mentioned previously), in thickness gauges
designed to measure and control metal foil
thickness during manufacturing processes, to
measure levels of toxic lead in dried paint
samples, and to help determine where oil
wells should be drilled.
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• The isotope 252Cf (a neutron emitter) is used for
neutron activation analysis, to inspect airline
luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge the
moisture content of soil and other materials, in
bore hole logging in geology, and in human cervix-
cancer therapy.

• Nuclear Power Plants

• Electricity produced by nuclear fission — splitting
the atom — is one of the greatest uses of radiation.
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• In plant research, radiation is used to develop new
plant types to speed up the process of developing
superior agricultural products.
• Insect control is another important application;
pest populations are drastically reduced and, in
some cases, eliminated by exposing male insects to
sterilizing doses of radiation.
• Radiation pellets are used in grain elevators to kill
insects and rodents. Irradiation prolongs the shelf-
life of foods by destroying bacteria, viruses, and
molds.
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• The useful application of radioisotopes extends to
the arts and humanities. Neutron activation
analysis is extremely useful in identifying the
chemical elements present in coins, pottery, and
other artifacts from the past. A tiny unnoticeable
fleck of paint from an art treasure or a microscopic
grain of pottery suffices to reveal its chemical
makeup. Thus the works of famous painters can be
"fingerprinted" so as to detect the work of forgers.
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• The use of small amounts of argon 41 in oil refineries. This
radioactive isotope is frequently injected into the catalytic
cracking towers to better monitor the quality of oil
produced.

• The most common uses of radiations in the food-growing

industry is to help remove insects and bacteria from fruits
and vegetables. Either by killing them directly, or by
sterilising the entire male population, insect-related
problems can frequently be solved with no harm to the
product involved.
• In the cement industry, for example, large
wagons carrying raw material are passed in
front of a neutron source. The nuclei in the
sample absorb these neutrons, and release
the excess energy by emitting high-energy
gamma rays. The detection of these rays
allows for a better understanding of the
sample composition, which can then be
altered to suit the factory standards.
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• One type of smoke detector uses Americium-
241, an alpha source, to detect smoke.
• Smoke alarm contains metal plates and
radioactive substance. The battery supply
sends voltage across metal plates. People are
alerted when the alarm bell sounds.
 RADIOISOTOPES IN INDUSTRY
• Archaeologists also use radioactive substances to determine
the ages of fossils and other objects through a process called
carbon dating. For example, in the upper levels of our
atmosphere, cosmic rays strike nitrogen atoms and form a
naturally radioactive isotope called carbon-14. Carbon is found
in all living things, and a small percentage of this is carbon-14.
When a plant or animal dies, it no longer takes in new carbon
and the carbon-14 that it accumulated throughout its life
begins the process of radioactive decay. As a result, after a few
years, an old object has a lower percent of radioactivity than a
newer object. By measuring this difference, archaeologists are
able to determine the object's approximate age.
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