CHAPTER-ONE

1. Conceptual Odyssey of Moral and Civic

Education

Opening Remarks
Nomenclature
Defining Civics, Ethics, Morality
Nature of Ethics and Morality
Ethics and Law
The Importance/Goal of Moral and Civic Education
 Nomenclature
Civic/Citizenship Education (Americans)
Citizenship and Character Education (Singapore)
Citizenship Education (Germany)
Right Education (South Africa)
Moral and Civic Education (Ethiopia) or
 Civics and Ethical Education
 1.1. Defining Civics/Civic Education

i) Etymological Origin;
 From the Latin word “civitas”
which means citizens.

 Citizen:- a person who is full members of politically organized

unit called “state”;
 Aristotle described as ‘all who share in the civic life of
ruling and being ruled in turn’.
ii). Current Application
 No universally accepted definition
 Different attempts
 It means different things for different individuals

Mostly cited definition;

 Civic education is an education that studies about the rights

and duties of citizens.

 Right:- advantage or privilege that he /she can obtain from the
concerned body/ies.
 Duty :- It is Responsibility which is expected to be accomplished.
Some other Attempts;
 Patrick (1986) defines as “the knowledge of the
constitutions, and its principles, values, history and
application to contemporary life”.

 UNDP (2004) defines as “a way of learning for effective

participation in a democratic and development process”.
In Nutt Shell
 Civics education deals with the reciprocal relationships
established between citizens and the state and among
citizens respectively.
o Rights and duties is its heart.
 reciprocal relations with respect to the economic,
cultural, social, political domains of the society.
1.2. Defining Ethics and Morality

i) Etymological Origin;
 Monotonous treadmill of definition
 Ethics derived from Greek-ethos
 Latin term mos/mores.
 Morality from Latin- mores/mos
Character
Behavior
Both implies Temperament
Principles or standards
ii) Current Application of the terms
 Deviates from their etymological synonymous.

 Morality can be understood as;

 Activities of individual according to the
standards that enable to distinguish as good or
bad.

 Morality says, “do this, don’t do this”, “act this

way, acting the other way is wrong”, “follow
these principles, if not it is wrong”.
 E.g.
 do not kill, do not commit adultery,
 Serving old parents, Moral rules.
 being friendly and respectful to guests
 Sharing the sorrow of others

Peoples belief about right or wrong conduct/actions of

man

Morality=person +standard+ conduct

 Ethics
 Used to connote the inquiry in to the nature of moral
acts
 Recognized as a field of study that deals with the
right/wrong in human conduct.
 Like other sciences;
 Has its object of study Moral act/conduct

 That is why we call it “Moral Philosophy”

 Generally, Ethics is:
 The critical examination of what is good, evil, right and

wrong in human conduct (Guy, 2001).

 A specific set of principles, values and guidelines for a

particular group or organization (Guy, 2001).

 The study of goodness/rightness of an action and what

moral principles should govern our pursuits and
choices (Madden, 2000).
 Brainstorm Question
Identify their commonalities and differences of Civics
and Ethics
1.4. Similarities and Differences of Civics and
Ethics

 Civics and Ethics are separate fields of academic

dealing with citizenship and morality respectively.
 More specifically, while civics is devoted to
the legal and political rules governing the
relations between the individual and the state
whereas;
 Ethics deals with those moral rules and
values governing an individuals and social
groups.
Variable Civics/Citizenship Ethics/ Morality
s
Area of focus i. legal and political rules i. Moral rules and values
governing the relations b/n the governing among individuals
individual and the state ii. Studies the horizontal r/ships
ii. Deal with the vertical relation among societies
ships
Objective Its primary goal is to inform Lay down moral rules that the
citizens rights and duties people ought to be guided

Membership Membership towards the state towards the culturally community

tied by common moral bonds

Degree of It is formal and has some Informal and not immediate unlike
formality authoritative element legal rules
(Trespassing the law followed (Breaching such norms result in
by legal punishment) social exclusion)

Universality Somehow objective elements With few exception, are

everywhere subjective(there is no standard
moral principles)
 Although they are separate academic fields of study,
however, they share certain commonalities.

i). The Issue of Membership(one belongs to or one doesn’t)

 Membership to a certain groupings is the very essence of

both citizenship and morality.

 In the absence of the concept of membership both lose

their fundamental meanings and status.

 In citizenship study, membership is meant that of
individual citizen to a political organized
community(the state)
 whereas in morality study, it largely denotes to that
of a cultural community tied up by common moral
and value bonds whether there is government or
not.
B. The Issue of Rights and Obligations
 Citizenship entails a set of rights and legal obligations
for individual members
thus violation or respect of which results punishment
or reward by the state.
 Morality is nothing but a list of standardizing bad and
good behaviors and dispositions of the individual by the
larger mass or group.
 thus violation or respect of which results punishment or
reward by the group.
C. Institutional Protection and supervision
 Both c/ship and morality are founded on
institutionalized origin, supervision and protection
within the community.
 The institution obtains its legitimacy and maintains to

rule over the behaviors of the individual member of

the group.

 State through its agencies regulate and

administer citizenship on a day-to-day basis;

 while such social institutions like the church,

family, neighborhood and others inspect
morality and ethical standards more informally.
 1.3. Sources and Interdisciplinary Nature
of Civic and Ethical Education
An interdisciplinary subject is a subject that borrows its
contents and methods from different fields of studies.
Therefore, Civics and Ethics is based upon the
principles, findings and theories of various disciplines.
 Civics and Ethics is a discipline that draws its contents

from various sources. These are:

 theoretical,
 documentary and
 societal sources-positive values, harmless
traditions, cultures and the likes
 A. Theoretical Sources of Civic and Ethical
Education
1 Philosophy:-
 Questions, inquire everything(whole gamut).
 As rational and critical inquire of basic questions of man.

 Formulating proper questions and attempt to solve by

rigorous reasoning.
 e.g. ultimate causes and final goal of all things in a
rational and critical manner.
 Why philosophy?

 human kinds since ancient time had the desire to know

the essence of nature, the meaning of life, death, the ups
and downs.
Many sub-branches
i. Metaphysics (theory of being).
 what is the ultimate source of reality is raised
Origin(source) of creation and existence of reality.
 What is reality(existence)?
E.g. Chemist may argue atoms are the base of everything which built
from electrons, protons, and neutrons. These particles made from
leptons, mesons etc then Meta-physicists can raise the question of
from which those particles are made.

 Is their a creator? How creator’s existence or could

be proved?
 What is man? What is the purpose of man’s life?
 Is reality predetermined? Do people have free will?
ii. Epistemology (theory of knowledge)
 Greak word episteme-which means knowledge

The study of knowledge

 Address the nature, source (reason, sense
experience), extent and certainty of knowledge.
 What is knowledge itself? What is truth?
 Is it mind the source of knowledge?
 Do we have innate(inborn) knowledge or mind

lacks knowledge itself?

 What is the difference or similarities between

knowledge, truth, belief, fact, opinion etc?

 “Unexamined life is not worth living”-Socrates
iii. Logic/Reasoning Skills-devoted with human
reasoning.
Its focus is on methods and principles in
which correct reasoning could be established.
Rational reasoning—that is, well conceived, well
evidenced, well stated, and persuasive
The key to philosophizing.

 Questions of logic:-

 How our ideas, beliefs, thought, be justified?

 How do we know that our ideas and expressions are

correct or incorrect?
 What are those principles that would help us to

formulate our ideas, thought correctly?

iv. Aesthetics- it is the philosophy of beauty and the
beauty of art.
 What is beauty? What is the nature of beauty?

 How ugliness is distinguished from beauty?

 What makes things beautiful? What is art?

v. Ethics/Moral Philosophy/
Intention behind ethics is how to attain good things


and avoid evil things.

The contribution it will help to identify


 truth from falsehood, knowledge from opinion,

ii.
2 Political Science:- the study/ analysis of
political ideas, institutions, behaviors, and practices.
 deals with power/ authority and legitimacy
 distribution of political power
 Activities, principles, procedures of
governments
 Politics: politics is all about in the words of Harold

Lasswell, “who gets what, when and how.”

 Therefore, Political Science, is the analysis of

politics
The major sub fields, among other things, are:

i. Comparative Politics:
 any study of foreign government and politics.
 uniformities, differences, and interrelationship among various
political systems.

ii. International Politics(power politics)

 politics between states
 It is the making of common decisions b/n states
 Like wars, diplomacy…

iii. Political Theory:

 Political thinkers formulate and develop concepts and theories.
 ideas about politics and critical discussion of political values-like
justice, democracy….
iv. Political behavior(political psychology):
 Why certain individual behave in a certain way.
 why they do what they do.

To know how motives and emotions work

in the field of political activities.

v. Political Institutions:
 Administrative organizations

 national government bodies, the congress, the

presidency, the bureaucracy, and in part the

courts.
3 Law:-
 According to Black’s Law Dictionary [Garner;

2004: 900] law consists of rules of action or

conduct. These rules are issued by an authority.
 Broadly:- law is a collection of rules laid down

by the government binding all member of the

society.
combination of declarations, rules, orders,
directives, etc.
 As a Science:- deal with the system of rules and

regulations that govern the relations of legal

persons in a society
 These are intended to govern the activities of
the members of a society.
 these rules have binding force and are obeyed
and followed by citizens. Sanction or other legal
consequence may help the law to be abided by
citizens.
 Civics deals with
 constitutions,
 legal rights and duties of citizens,
 rule of law and
 human and democratic rights
 4 Sociology: -

 As the name indicates, it is the study of society in

its entirety, human groups and organization.
 concerned with social interaction
 Civics and Ethics also in sociology deals the
pattern of social interactions
 It will help as to understand the culture, norm
of different societies.
 help to develop the notion of tolerance,

respect in terms of differences of culture,

 can appreciate diversities
5 History: -
 on the total experience of human beings
 deals past events, interprets the present, possible to
predict what will happen in the future.
 Civics also studies human experience at different times,
in relation with the growth and development of
governments and systems.
 Enable to understanding of the politico-economic time

events of a given society

 competent and an active citizen can exhibit civic

virtues, patriotism and national pride

 appreciation and understanding of how the present life

has come in to being.

6 Geography/Political Geography/Geo-politics

What is Geography?
o Geography devoted the earth’s physical characteristics, its
inhabitants and cultures, phenomena and the earth’s place
within the universe.
o Geography is a “science of earth’s surface, form, physical features,
natural and political divisions, climate, population”

 The importance of geographic factors/influence on

domestic and international politics.
 We obtain information and knowledge about
geographical size and location.
 Influence of environment on state, national
traits.
7 Economics/Political Economy/
 It tries to harmonize the unlimited wants of human being with
available scarce resources.
 Devoted on production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services.
 Adopting different alternatives(studying economic
activities, decisions and policies) for economic problems.
 Unless man able to address economic problems, it would be
very hard to have a prevalence of;
 Rule of law,

 good governance,

 lasting peace and so forth.

 Therefore, economic issues and civic are inseparable.

 B. Documentary Sources of Civic and Ethical
Education
 Constitution-written/unwritten

 decisions and enactments of legal bodies,

 historical sources, films, photographs

 international instruments

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

 Convention on the Right of the Child (1989)
convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (1979)
Convention on Refugees and Stateless
Persons(1951)
 1.4. Goals of Civic and Ethical
Education
Brain Storming
Right know, you Brain StormingCivics and Ethical
are taking
Right know,
Education. you
What kindare taking Civics
of Knowledge and Ethical
and outlook finally
Education.
will it gives What
you?.kind of Knowledge and outlook finally
will it gives you?.
 Democratic society can be realized by the active
participation of citizens in a society.
Citizen’s engagement to participate in civic
life is not similar across different countries.
 intensity of citizen’s active participation reflect the
realization of the goals
i). Developing of Democratic Outlook
 Democratic outlook should inculcate in the minds of students

 It is possible by teaching students

 democratic values, principles

 could shoulder the responsibility of their country

Thus, Civic Education is a tool of

democratization of the State
ii). Providing Citizens with knowledge and Intellectual
Skills.
 So as to monitor and influence government rules, decisions
and actions.
 Since with out which the good of the society do not
materialize.
iii). Strengthening National character/patriotism
 For a country to progress effectively its citizens
must be soaked in the spirit of patriotism.
 sacrifice every thing for their motherland

 should also be proud of their identity, cultural

heritage ,values of the society

iv). Create an Ideal Citizenship: -
 armed students the qualities of an ideal citizen. It

includes
 believes in equality for all people;
 puts the general welfare above ones own interest;
 Respecting and upholding the rule of law
 Actively participating in different affairs
v) Promoting the Culture of Civic Responsibility: - Civic
responsibility is the commitment to fulfilling obligations
as a citizen. It include;
 obeying the law,
 informed of public issues,
 Monitoring leaders and governmental agencies
 Keeping public property, cultural and historical heritage
 Protecting the boundary/independence of one’s own
state.
vi). Building Civic Competence : - It is the ability and
willingness to participate effectively in civic life.
 Engaging on socio-economic and political arena.
Enable keen observers of their nation’s issue
 Thus, it is a tool to empowering
1.5. Competences of Good Citizens
i). Civic Knowledge: concerned with the content or what citizens
ought to know.
 awareness about the socio-cultural, politico-economic
realities of the past and the present.
ii). Civic Skills: need to acquire relevant intellectual and
participatory skills.
 critical thinking skills (To be able to think critically)
 skills of decision making, communication, conflict
resolution, compromise, persuasion e.t.c
iii). Civic Attitudes: It refers to the behaviors that are desirable
and acceptable. Ex
 Giving community service, citizens need to develop positive

out look and concern for the community.

 E.g. Altruistic qualities to help in needy
1.2. Understanding of Citizenship: Ethiopia’s
 Introduction
 States can not be understood in the absence of

citizenship and vise versa.

 What does citizenship mean really?

i. it denotes a basic re/ship between the state and its

individual members.
 It is a legal relationship b/n citizens and their

government.
 Rights and obligations lie at the heart of citizenship.
ii. it refers to the legal and political status of an
individual member to be a citizen of the state.
 the status of individuals in a state and
outside a state.
 Attached benefits and responsibilities
 official recognition of an individual’s
integration into the political system.
iii. An instrument of identification.
 it is an official identity that distinguishes from
others.
 it is a way by which citizens of a state can be
distinguished from citizens of other states.
For example, someone is officially identified with an
Ethiopian citizenship you can be differentiated from
citizens of other countries because you are associated
with the Ethiopian state.
iv). Citizenship is not static or rigid in nature; rather it
is characterized by its flexibility.
 Members of various states may have differing status,

rights and privileges depending on the nature of the

states
 In other words, all individuals residing within a state

may not be citizens.

 In nutshell, Citizenships means
 It implies a relationship b/n individual and
state.
 It is a legal member of a state- the status of
getting membership in a certain political
society.
 It is official recognition in to the political
system.
 It is a right and duties of citizen.
 It is an identification of an individuals
 1.2.1. Process of Acquiring and Loosing of Citizenship

Since you are an Ethiopian Citizen. How do you obtain it?

i). Modes of Acquiring Citizenship

How citizenship is acquired?
 Laws and the status of citizenship is not the same across
different states.
 varies in different countries depending upon the specific
laws of each country.
 There is no clear uniformity.
 each state has the right to determine who its citizens are
and who are not.
1). Citizenship by Birth
 Acquisition by birth takes place in either of the

following rules.
i. jus soli which means the law of soil (by place of
birth)
 Children are citizens of the nation in which they are

born, no matter what the parents’ nationalities are.

 E.g. U.S.A, Britain, Canada
 Exception:-
 delegates of foreign countries with diplomatic
mission
 International organization representatives
 babies born to refugees, born on public ships.
 ii. Jus Sanguineous - the law of
blood/decent
 one’s parents and ancestors is the
determining factor.
 Nationality of a state may also be acquired

by a person on the basis of the nationality of

either parent. Thus a child may become a
national of that - state – of which his parents
are nationals.
Ethiopia, Canada, France, U S A,
German
2. Naturalization(Citizenship by Law):-
 is a mode of acquiring citizenship after birth.
 It can be defined as a process by which a

state confers (gives) its citizenship on an

individual, who is originally not its citizen.
 It means granting a new citizenship to an

alien person
 It is purely under the authority of the state.

 Individual should satisfy the specific

criteria set by the state

There are a number of ways that state required. The
most common ones include: 
 Marriage,
when aliens engages into a marriage with other
citizen
 Legitimizing (adoption)
 by which stateless children are legitimized or
legally acquire citizenship through parenthood or
guardianship
 Application
involves a direct application of a foreign individual
An applicant has to fulfill certain minimum
requirements.
 Special Case:- owing to outstanding contribution
for host state.
 Substitution/Merger or Separation
 Apart from by birth and naturalization, people
residing on a specific territory of a state annexed
(either peacefully or forcefully), would be united
to another state and hence be citizens of the
latter, which means acquire its citizenship. Such
process is known as substitution.
 When Austria was annexed by Germany,

all the nationals of Austria became the

nationals of Germany.
 3.2.2. Ways of Loosing Citizenship
1. Renunciation/Expatriation
 If state harasses the person and when the person
dislikes the politics or ideologies pursued by the state.
 search for citizenship in another state in accordance

with his/her interest.

It is a voluntary means
 make personal decisions to stop citizenship of their

native state and go somewhere else primarily because

of political, economic and social reasons.
 Even the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of
1948 lays down under article 15(2) that no one shall be
denied the rights to change his or her nationality
2. Deprivation
 when citizens commit certain serious crimes against
the regime and national interest.
 For instance:-
 transferring secrets(spy on military, political
intelligence ) to other states,
 to side enemy state in time of war or
 if a citizen enters into foreign civil or military

service with out permission

Deprivation is done for committing crimes

Whereas
Renunciation is on the basis of the individual will
3. Substitution
 It is one way of acquiring citizenship. But here,
also way of losing citizenship at the same time.
 When the people leave their former state(secede)
they are losing citizenship, and while they are
joining/form another state they are at the same
time acquiring citizenship.
4. Lapse/Expiration:
 because of staying outside of one’s state for a long time.
 For example, according to the law of India, if an Indian
citizen goes abroad and stays there for more than seven
yeas, constitutionally he/she will no longer be Indian
citizen or be with Indian citizenship.

Brainstorming Question
How about in Ethiopia?
 3.3. Overview of Citizenship and
Nationality Laws in Ethiopia
3.3.1. Way of acquiring citizenship in Ethiopia
1. By birth:
 proc No 378/ 2003, article 3(1) any person
shall be an Ethiopian national by descent
where both or either of his parent is
Ethiopian.
2. By law (naturalization):
foreigner may acquire Ethiopian nationality by
law ;Articles 5-12 proc
i. Marriage:
 Proc No 378/2003 Article 6 clearly explains the foreigner
who is married to an Ethiopian national may acquire
Ethiopian nationality by law when one fulfills the following
requirements:
 1) The marriage is concluded in accordance with the
Ethiopian laws.
 2) He has lived in Ethiopian for at least one year
preceding the submission of his application; and
 3) He fulfilled the conditions stated under Article 5(1,7,8)
of the proclamation.
 Citizenship cannot be obliterated even if the partners get

divorced.
ii. Legitimation (case of adoption):
 An illegitimate child has the right to get his biological

or caretaker father/ Mather citizenship after legitimating.

 Any child adopted by Ethiopian national, based on proc

No 378/2003, may obtain Ethiopian nationality when the

following conditions are fulfilled;
He has not attained the age of majority,
He lives in Ethiopia together with his adopting
parent;
Where one of his adopting parents is a foreigner, such
parent has expressed his stated in writing; and
The condition stated under Article 5 (7) of the
proclamation has been fulfilled.
iii. Grant on Application:
 According to the Ethiopian nationality proclamation
of 2003 article 5, the following are requirements:
 His age must be 18 and above it
 One who lived in Ethiopia for a total of at least

four years
 must have sufficient and lawful source of income
 One who is a person of good character
 One have no record of criminal conviction
 He/she shall be required to take the oath of

allegiance stated under article 12 of this

proclamation.
iv. Re integration (restoration):
 a person who has lost his / her citizenship due to some

reasons may get back if he/ she fulfill some conditions.

 nationality proclamation article 22,

 Returns to domicile in Ethiopia

 Renounces his foreign nationality
 Applies to the security, immigration and refugee affairs
authority.

V. Citizenship by Special Case:

 article 8, a foreigner who has made an outstanding

contribution in the interest of Ethiopia may get Ethiopia

nationality irrespective of the conditions stated under article
5 (2),(3).
3.3.2. Way of Loosing citizenship in Ethiopia
1. Renunciation
when the following conditions are fulfilled (Article 19 of

proclamation No 378/2003):
i) Any Ethiopian who has been guaranteed nationality of
another state shall have the right to renounce his Ethiopian
nationality.
ii) An Ethiopian who intends to renounce his nationality in
accordance with this Article sub Article (1) shall in advance
inform the authority in the form prescribed by the authority
iii) renunciation of child pursuant to sub-Article (1)
of this Article shall be effected by the joint
decision of his parents or, where one of his parents
is a foreigner, by the decision of the Ethiopian
parent.
iv) An Ethiopian who has declared his intention to
renounce his nationality may not be released until
He has discharged his outstanding national
obligations, or
Where he has been accused of or convicted for
a crime, he has been acquitted or served the
penalty.
 3.3.3. Dual nationality
 is impossible in Ethiopian context Article 20 of proclamation No 378/
2003 supports the above statement by stating the following sub-Article:
1) any Ethiopian who voluntarily acquires another nationality shall be
deemed to have voluntarily renounced his Ethiopian nationality.
2) An Ethiopian who acquires another nationality by virtue of being born
to a parent having a foreign nationality or by being born abroad shall be
deemed to have voluntarily renounced his other nationality unless he has
declared to the Authority his option to retain it by renouncing his other
nationality with in one year after attaining the age of majority.
Brainstorming Question
What do you recommend about Dual Nationality in Ethiopia?. Is it
better to allow dual nationality or not?
 CHAPTER-TWO
2. ETHICS AND ETHICAL THEORIES

Philosophy

Ethics

Aesthetics Epistemolog
Metaphysics Logic
Normative Ethics Non-normative Ethics VirtueyEthics
 Opening Remarks
 Moral philosophy/ Ethics is concerned with the
elucidation of moral principles, clarification of
fundamental ethical concepts and critical discussion
of positions and perspectives.
 Ethical Rules or Moral Values:- those values that

define personal decisions and actions as moral or

immoral.
 guide the action and behaviors of individuals
and groups with in a society.
 Ethical Theories/thought are view points, doctrines,

beliefs or perspectives of various school of thought

on the moral life of man.
 2.1. Overview of Ethics and Ethical Theories

Traditionally, Ethics is normative in its character



 Develop and provide moral principles

Is Ethics a science?

 Scrutiny analysis of moral life of man

Ethics only concern moral value

 Any action many not have moral value(moral versus amoral)
It aims at the attainments of the highest good


 Man pursue all good things and avoid all bad things.
 Goodness or badness is structured under highest good
But, what is this highest good?


 Is it money or intellectual, power, religious life, happiness,

health of the body,
Its ultimate goal or peace
is the of the to
attempt mind?
answer all the above
questions. Thereby, man lead stable, peaceful, pleasant life
 2.2. Origin and Development of Ethical Theories
i). Ancient Origin of Ethics
 The origin of Ethical thought goes back to ancient

societies.
 The ancient Greek philosophers were the first to

speculate the good life of man that could be

achieved independent of religious and traditional
belief system.
 Protagoras ‘man is the measures of all things’-
moral ideas are a matter of convention.
 They conceived that religious rules did not bring
good life. They felt that they need to go beyond the
claim of traditional religion.
ii). Divine Origin of Ethics
 In medieval period, ethics was conceived in

accordance with religious rules, beliefs and

practices of the time.
Ethics was highly affiliated with the Christian
church.
 Philosophers like St. Augustine and St.
Aquinas forwarded the view that we have a
freedom to disobey it, man’s moral goodness
emanates from the law of super natural
being-God.
iii). Modern Origin of Ethics
 Since 16th C., due to urbanization, science and decline of
the acceptance of Roman Christianity, ethics has got the
opportunity to remove the veil(curtain) of religion and
began to demand rational basis for morality.
 modern political thinkers tried to base ethical code on
human reasoning rather than on religion and faith.
 were the attempt to establish ethical code on the basis
of rationalism and intellect.
 Ethics in the modern history is attempts to
focusing on secular ethical issues.
 John Locke- associated good with pleasure and evil with pain.
 2.1. Why the Study of Ethics and Ethical
Theories
 a means of curing moral evils of the society and
maintain well-order good life of society.
 solve moral dilemma that needs us to conflicting

decisions.
Euthanasia(peaceful death assisted by
medical workers)
 develop moral values and principles that we

should follow in our life experiences.

 2.3. Contending Theories

Ethics

Normative Ethics Non-normative Ethics

Virtue
Ethics
G e neral Norm at i v e Et hi cs

Applied
Normative Ethics
Teleological Ethics Deontological Ethics
Descriptive Ethics Meta ethics
 2.3. 1. Normative/Prescriptive Ethics
The word normative is derived from the Latin word


“norma” which means rule.

This day, normative refers that which should be
done since it establish norms of moral conduct
concerned with developing rational moral rules,


principles or standards of conduct to govern the

activities of human beings.
It tell us;

What is good or bad in human conduct
What people ought to do or not to do in specific situation
 E.g; man should love justice(should be just), respectful,
truthful, kindness and so forth
i). Applied Normative Ethics: is the attempt to explain and
justify positions on specific moral problems,
 deals with moral issues, when they are found to be

controversial.
 Every moral issues is not the subject of applied ethics

 To be applied ethics, the case should be:

i. Moral value
ii. Specific moral problem
iii. controversial/hot issues of moral problem.
 such as sex outside marriage, capital punishment,
euthanasia, abortion, reverse discrimination.
 Determining the rightness or wrongness of these issues
is very difficult, b/se public opinion is always divided.
ii). General Normative Ethics: attempts to
determine guidelines to be followed so that our
actions may be morally right/just.
 When and How our moral decision is just or
unjust? Permissible or impermissible?

a) Teleological ethics(consequentialist) theory

b) Deontological ethics (non-consequentialist)
theory
 Teleological Ethics
 The Greek word ‘teleo’, which means ends, result or
purposes.
 Refers things/act which determined by its
consequences
 Every individual act/action has its own outcome, end or
consequences
 Also called consequentialism.
 According to teleological ethics the consequence of moral

act(as opposed to its intension or motive, moral

principle)determine the act’s correctness.
 An action is judged moral or immoral on what
happens as a result of it.
 “The end justifies the means”.
 They are hedonistic in their nature since they believe
that pleasure is the highest and final aim of life.
 Pleasure has intrinsic values/only preferred

thing
 Goodness of a human act is determined by the pleasure it
produces.

Should we consider one’s own satisfaction(our

self) or for the greatest people involved?

 To give an answer this question, consequentialist

theories has two folds;
 Ethical Egoism/egoistic hedonism
 Social Hedonism/Utilitarianism
i). Ethical Egoism(egoistic hedonism)
 Greek word “ego” refer that “I” or “my self” and you can
understand that literally refers to self-concern.
 Egoism refers human act to fulfill their own desire at the
expense of others.
 According to this ethical theory, the morality of an action is
determined in reference to the doer of the action.
the greatest good for all will be served only if we
all pursue our own self- interest
 An action is moral right if it maximizes the interests of
the doer of the action.
 It is a cost-benefit analysis of moral decision.
 Example: Thomas Hobess (1588-1679)
 Thus, such kind of perception and self-centeredness always
leads to it corrupted Society.
ii). Utilitarianism (Social hedonism)
 Utility(usefulness) is derived from the outcome of an actions.
 Utilitarianism is the ethical doctrine that an action is morally
right if and only if, the result of an action promotes the best
consequence for everyone possible.
“greatest amount of happiness for the
greatest number of people”- Principle of Utility

 It has to be great pleasure=its amount has to

be very high.
 It has to be for great number of people=
pleasure should distribute or shared by people
at large.
Utilitarianism agree moral worth should create greatest pleasure
and to reduce pain.
 greatest balance of pleasure and to reduce
pain.
 However, unlike egoism, utilitarianism considers not only
oneself, but all others that might be affected. For instance;
Altruism
“To do as you would be done by,”
“to love your neighbor as yourself,”

The question is, how great pleasure could be

determined? Or how acts could be known whether they
can produce great or small pleasure?

 The answer was forward by Jeremy Bentham and Stuart Mill

Bentham’s versus Mill Version of Utilitarianism

Bentham-Quantity Mill- Quality

i). Quantitative (quantity of pleasure) i). Qualitative (pleasure has also
 Utility calculus/hedonic calculus-the quality aspects)
arithmetic of felicity. ii). Pleasures are not equals
1. Intensity, or how strong it is. Conducting scientific experiment is
2. Duration, how long it will last. higher
3. Certainty, how likely it is to occur.
4. Propinquity(proximity), how near at hand it Higher pleasure

is.
5. Fecundity, its ability to produce still
further pleasures.
6. Purity, its freedom from ensuing pains.
7. Extent, the number of people affected  wouldn’t you rather be a dissatisfied
ii). Equated pleasures equally
 Playing card and conducting scientific experiment has the human than a satisfied pig.
same satisfaction. Greatest meant best(quality).
“greatest” meant most(amount), .”

 “If the game of push-pin furnish more pleasure, it is more “It is better to be a human being
valuable” dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”
 Deontological/Non consequentialist/ Ethics
 “deo/deon” is Greek word mean “to bind”, “duty”
 Deontology, therefore, is the study of duty in moral
matters
 Morality is a matter of duty;

Or
 Deontological ethics considers duty as a standard of
moral judgment and the kernel of its claims.
 Without the consideration of duty, correct ethical
judgment is impossible.
 Deontologist(Means) is the antithesis of teleologist (end)
 “The means justify the end”
Aim of man’s life is happiness Vs aim of man’s life is fulfilling duty .
Duty;
 duty is moral obligation to be fulfilled according to moral
law, irrespective of one’s pleasantness or not.
 Hence, a person’s morality(one’s goodness or badness) could
be determined with reference to moral law.

Moral Law: is principle that comes to our mind in a

moment of choosing and/or doing things.
 If the moral law says “do it”, one has a duty to do it, if it says
“don’t do it” one has a duty to refrain from doing it.
 Keeping promise
 Refrain to wish other property
 Do not harm others Duty=moral duty
 Help others in need
 What is this moral law that we have a duty to
respect it?
Do it mean that the law of the state?
Is it the cultural moral values of the society?
Is it the commandment of God? Or
Do they mean the respect of moral law that
exist in our conscience?

 Origin(source)of moral law/rules

 i). Divine Command theory
 Ii). Kantian ethics/Kant’s Categorical Imperative
 Iii). Ross’s Prima facie duties
i). Divine Command Theory
 What makes an action right or wrong is that it is
commanded or forbidden by God/Allah.
 Whatever the situation, if we do what God/Allah
wills, then we do the right thing; if we do not do
what God wills, then no matter what the
consequences, we do wrong.
 In nut shell, this theory equates what is right
with what God/Allah wills.
ii). Kant’s Categorical Imperative
He believed that morality is independent
of God or every ones’ will.
For Kant moral law within the
individual(not from society or God).
 Hypothetical versus Categorical Imperatives
A). Hypothetical Imperative
 It is conditional on (“if… then”) or subject to
circumstances, goals, and desires.
 (Forced by external circumstances or by

calculating one’s advantage or disadvantage)

 If you want Y then you ought to do X

 Study day and night then you will score good result.
 E.g; help the needy one b/se you will get to heaven.
 In this case, helping others(poor) is depend up on certain

goals. Thus, Kant conclude that such act is not good moral
act. Since it lacks the motive to respect the moral law. Or
“Treating others as means to your end” Stop!
B). Categorical Imperative
Morality is unconditional


 Unconditional (no “ifs”) and independent of any circumstances,

goals, or desires.
For this reason, only a categorical imperative is valid at all times.
 Imperative-principle on which we ought to act

 Categorical – uniform and universal in its applicability without

exception in every situation.

You ought to do X since it is your obligation (regardless of any result)

Example:
Love your country b/se it is your obligation
 Thus, good man(right man) is a person who has good will.
 Good here refers the moral law itself
 Will is human ability to decide and act in respect of
moral law.
 Thus, good will is the capacity to make choices on the base
of moral law.
 Our mind has the natural capacity to distinguish what is

good and bad

 Thus, a good man act consciously and abide by moral law.

“treat people as an end never as a means to an end”.

 That is, we should always treat people with

dignity, and never use them as mere instruments.

 iii). Prima Facie Duties(William David Ross)
 Ross’s interest is to solve one of the problem that
Kant left unsolved
 The dilemma of choosing

 We have various duties that oftentimes come into

conflict with each other.

 For instance; choosing either to speak a truth
or to keep one’s promise(moral law/rule in
conflict)
 For Ross, as in the case of Kant, moral rules without

exception should be obeyed, but when they are in

conflict , we should be situational-prefer prima facie
duty.
Ross identified the following as prima facie duties that every moral
action should obey always:
1)Duties of fidelity(the duty to keep promises b/se of our previous

act)
2)Duties of reparation(the duty to compensate others when we harm

them)
3)Duties of gratitude/respect(the duty to thank those who help us).

4)Duties of justice(duties involving treating in a fair and equal

manner whenever possible)

5)Duties of beneficence(charitable act for the good life of others or

act for the happiness of other people if possible) do what is best for
others
6)Duties of self-improvement(improving ourselves with respect to
good moral character, intelligence and happiness).
7)Duties nonmaleficence: (the duty not to hurt, harm or sadden other

people).
 2.3.2. Non normative Ethics
 It concerned with factual investigation of moral behavior and
analysis of the meaning and nature of ethical terms .
 i). Descriptive Study
 How people do in fact behave.
 Its goal is to describe or explain the phenomena of morality.
 how the values, behavior and code differ from society
to society.
 which aims to discover and describe the moral
beliefs(rightness or wrongness) of a specific culture.
 But, it do not tell us(prescribe) what is right or wrong. Rather,
it describe what those people think about right and wrong
belief.
 Ethical Relativism versus Ethical Absolutism
 Relativism/subjectivism
 Moral relativism asserts that
moral values are not uniform to
every society.
 Morality could not be
independent of cultural belief.
 Its judgment is varies from
individual to individual
 (Right and wrong is varied
across society). Or there is no
universal principles of morality.
“beauty is in the eyes of the holder”
Absolutism/Universalist
 Moral principles are
universal
(People can practice moral
principles uniformly)
 What is good for one
individual must also be
considered good for any
other individuals.
 people have the same
feeling everywhere; For
instance;
 All dislike public
humiliation (dignity)
ii). Meta Ethics
 When the word “meta” appears as a prefix, it means the
study of characteristics(nature) of things.
 It concerned and attempt to analysis

 meaning ethical terms, nature of ethical statements

and attitudes.
 provide linguistics and logical analysis of ethical

concepts.
 For instance; “tell only the truth” is right
 Meta Ethics ask:

 What does it mean truth it self?

 What makes telling the truth necessary?
 How is it possible to justify telling the truth is good?
 Is their a relation b/n truth and goodness e.t.c
 2.3.3. Virtue Ethics
Introductory Notice
 We have seen two different theories of morality:

 Although these approaches are different, they both

share one common feature:

 Focus on actions. Each theory gives us rules to
determine which actions are right and which
wrong- Principle base(follow the principle).
 Utilitarianism: “the greatest good for the
greatest number of people.”
 Kant argues that we must follow the
Categorical Imperative in judging actions.
Principle base(N. Ethics) Character(Virtue Ethics)

 What separates right  What is a good person?

and wrong actions?  What traits of character
 What rules should will lead to a good life?
guide behavior?  How do we acquire and

 How do we determine cultivate these traits?

individual with
moral dilemmas.
 Doing good  Being good
2.3.3. 1. Conceptualizing Virtue Ethics
The term virtue originate from a Latin (virus) and Greece


(areti) excellence of a person.

Virtues are traits of character that manifest themselves in


action.
Character
What is a key concept in virtue ethics.
is Character?
The person’s essence(who that person is or it makes us who we
are), the make up of one’s personality or disposition that display in
a society.
Virtue Ethics is the quality of doing what
is good and not doing what is right

Thus, traits themselves is the focal point for virtue theorists.



Actually, it’s a very old theory dating back to Aristotle.



 Modern virtue ethics is the resurgence of ancient theories.

i). Aristotle on Virtue Ethics
 Nicomachean Ethics (His major works on morality)
 Virtue and goodness is inseparable

 Virtues life is always good, b/se it is the life of the mean

 virtues as the mean b/n extremes (excess and deficiency).

 Golden Mean is desirable middle ground, between two

undesirable extremes 
 Avoiding the two extreme position
Example:
 Generosity: is the mean b/n stinginess(selfishness) and
prodigality(wasteful)
 Charity- give either too much or too little is vice
 Thus, the virtuous person is generous in giving money, but
not wasteful; she/he finds the midpoint and gives the right
amount to the right people at the right time.
Emotion/Action Deficiency(vice) Mean Excess (Vice)
(Virtue)

Stinginess
Giving Money Generosity Prodigality
(selfishness)

Fear Cowardice Courage Rashness

Mildness(gentleness
Anger Inirascibility Irascibility
).

Temperance(Moderati
Seeking Pleasure Insensibility on) Self-Indulgence
ii). Character Trait of Virtues Man
What are the essential features of virtues that make us being good
always?

 Courage
 Compassion

 Justice  Self-discipline
 Honest  Tactfulness
 Humility/Humbleness  Moderation
 Wit/humor  Magnificence/Brilliance
 Prudence  Tolerance
 Temperance  Civility/Politeness
For Virtue is its own
reward !
 Professional Ethics
 Profession and professional
i). Profession refers to the knowledge, skill, and
ability, which can be acquired through formal
educational institutions. such as universities,
colleges and training centers.
 Profession is a type of regular job or occupation

that a person attain it by formal education from

accredited institute.
ii). Professional is someone who has special
knowledge and skill in certain area.
 Given this definition, all activities undertaken by an
individual cannot be qualified as professions.
 every occupation is not profession.
 major or essential characteristics of a profession are

the following.
 Attaining special knowledge of science or
vocation
 Being Licensed(certificated)
 Formal/extensive education/training(requires
along period training to be characterize a
profession).
 Recognition by government and society
 It provides an important service for society.
 Aims and Nature of Profession
 Professional practice of one person is hardly exist.

 It is a common occupation.
 Each profession is organized to serve the public

 Expected to promote public good-must

contribute for the wellbeing of the people.
 Now a day having a certain certificate is not

sufficient.
 Having degree by it self is not a guarantee to
obtain and maintain good job.
 Thus, should guided by moral ideas.

 require morally permissible way

iii). Professional Ethics:
 It is specific and general guideline that should be

followed and exhibited by every professionals.

 It refers to the code of conduct that guide our

conduct while we are providing professional

services to the clients.
It is significant to determine the proper
behavior and discipline that individuals
should conform to their profession.
 Different professions may have different codes of

ethics since services provided by each profession

are different.
 But there are also common codes of ethics and rules of
conduct that must be universally applied.
a) Punctuality: It is a belief that across all professions
a worker must always be on time.
b) Honesty : refers to the art of telling the truth.
Employees are expected to be honest.
c) Integrity: the worker should devote his/her time,
skill and knowledge for his/her profession.
d) Confidentiality: professional should keep some
information that should be kept secret.
e) Impartiality professional is expected to treat all
clients equally during service delivery without
any forms of discrimination.
 CHAPTER-THREE
2.Understnding of Society, State &
Government: Ethiopian Focus
Opening Remarks
 Definition, Attributes, and Theories of Society.
 Perspectives on the Meaning and Origin of

State
 Element of State and State Structures

 Meaning, Functions and System of government

 2.1. Society
Introduction:-
 Society is a focal point in the stream of social sciences,
particularly in sociology and political science.
 The nature or type of society is not similar across time &

place.
 Social Structure:-an aspect of social ranking and roles.
 Social Change:-Social relation/interaction is not
something static-it is always changing.
 society does not remain unchanged over time.

 It has a persistent process of action and

interaction.
2.1. Definition and Attributes of Society

 Indeed, the meaning of society is a point of discourse

among scholars in social science.
 The concept of society is given different meanings by

different writers.
 Different sociologists look at society from different

angles.
i) In its broad sense:-
 A Society is an organized group of people living together

in a given territory.
 A group of people living together or an assemblage
of people living together.
ii. Society represents totality of relationships among
humans.
a). It is the integrated whole system that consists of
other activities as sub systems.
Society is a broad term that consists of state
and other realm.
b). In political science;
 the term is to mean the totality of human

relationships, generally in contrast to the state,

i.e., the apparatus of rule or government
iii. A group of humans broadly distinguished from
other groups by mutual interests, shared
institutions, and a common culture.
 a collections of individuals united by certain
modes of behavior.
 Their mode mark them off from others who do
not inter into these relations/who differ from
them in behavior. For instance;
 Sidama Society;
 nation state, such as Ethiopians/Society
 to a broader cultural group, such as African
Society.
iv. It can also be explained as an organized
group of people associated with association,
religious, scientific grouping.
Christian/Muslim society
 Society of physics. Society of philosophy
 In Nutt Shell

SOCIETY
2.2. Attributes/ elements of Society
 In fact, any assemblage of people cannot be
regarded as a society.
 In order to be considered as a society a group of

people must fulfill the following principles:

A. Common Geographical Area/Defined Territory

 particular society has been demarcated by:-

 natural boundaries such as the rivers,
mountain ranges or forests, canals,.
 artificial boundaries - demarcated by
political settlements
B. Variety of Interactions:

• people of the society interact each other for

their survival.
• Having diverse, multifaceted and endless
interactions.
• People share certain interests, attitudes,
abilities/skills, traditions, values, objectives

C. Total Culture/Common Culture:

• The society will be differentiated by the other
because of its unique culture institutions.
D. Feeling of Solidarity:

 Since society has a common territory, customs, common

history, common cultures,
 causes feelings oneness and solidarity among
themselves.
 they never lose their identity and remains united as
long as their society survives.

E. Functional Differentiation
 All individuals never perform similar activities

 different functions depending upon their sex, age, interest,

abilities, skills and other qualifications.

 2.3. CONTENDING THEORIES ABOUT SOCIAL
SYSTEMS

There are various theories, which basically deal about the

social system and social interaction of the society-How the
Social world is working?
 understand how the entire world works.
Sociologist views society in different ways:
i. Functionalist perspective
ii. Conflict perspectives
iii. Inter-actionist perspectives
i. Functionalist Perspectives/Functionalism.
 They see the world as a stable and ongoing entity to
survive over time.
 A social system made up of interdependent parts.

 parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.

 Any society as a vast network of connected parts, each of

which helps to maintain the system as a whole.

 Think about society as a living organism in which each
part of the organism contributes to its survival.
 If an aspect of social life does not contribute to a
society’s stability or survival(if it does not have
function),it will not be passed on from one generation to
the next.
ii. Conflict Perspectives

Because society is made up of individuals competing



for limited resources

 Social behavior is best understood in terms of
conflict/tension between competing groups.
The social order is based on coercion and exploitation.
 Society as composed of many groups in conflict like;

 Social unrest resulting from battles over civil rights

 Party politics, competition b/n religious groups

 The rise of feminist and gay liberation movements

 society’s institutions including government business
corporation, religion, education and the media

 Maintain stability and internal cohesion of societies to

ensure their continued existence over time.

Vs

 help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep

others in subservient position.
iii. Interactionist/Symbolic Perspective
 About every day forms of social interaction in order to
explain society as a whole.
 Every day routine interaction among individuals.

 For instances; the following catch the attention of

interactionists.
 Workers interacting on the job,
 encounter in public places
 behavior in small groups and others

 Symbols like
 Salute- Physical gestures of the respect
e.g. The solder saluted the colonial
 Comparing Major Theoretical Perspectives
Functionalist Conflict Interactionism
View of society Stable, well Characterized by Active in influencing
integrated tension & struggle and affecting social
b/n groups interaction

Level of analysis Macro institution Macro institution Micro as a way of

understanding the
larger macro
Key concept functions inequality Symbol, Face-to-face
interaction/conversati
on/
View of social Maintained Maintained Maintained by shared
order through through force and understanding of
cooperation and coercion everyday behavior
consensus.
proponents Emile Durkheim Karl Marx Herbert Mead
Talcott Parsons Du Bois Horton Cooley
 2.2. State
Opening Remarks
 The concept of ‘state’ occupies a central place in

political science.
 No discussion is complete in political science
without reference to the word ‘State’.
 In every day language we speak of the state
 It touches every aspect of human life and that is
why it has captured the attention of all political
philosophers since the days of Plato.
 2.2. Defining and Understanding of State

2.2.1. Conceptual Discourses

 State as a concept is a perplexing one to
understand it easily.
 there is no commonly agreed definition

regarding the concept of the state

 some social scientists developed a theoretical

kits.
 Organizational and Functional Approaches
i) Organizational approach:

 State is an abstract idea its existence

manifested through its agents, government.
 State as a set of government institutions.
 Accordingly, government is an
agent/apparatus of the state through which the
will of the state are expressed and realized.
formulated, and executed.
 Thus government implies the process of making
rules, controlling, guiding or regulating.
ii) Functional approach:-

 defines the state by its purpose:

Thus, State as set of institutions that carry out
particular purposes or objective.
 e.g. the maintenance of social order.

 Technicality “State as a political association that

establish sovereign jurisdiction within a defined
territorial border and exercise authority through a
set of institutions over all the member of society ”
 2.2.1. Major Attributes of State
‘pillars’ of the modern state

STATE

Territor
y People

n Sovereig
i t i o nty Gov’t
n
c og
Re
i. Permanent population
no state unless people live together an associated


life.
more or less permanent population (not mobile

population).
The question is how much people constitute state?


 ancient writers said much stress on it.

 Plato -an ideal state around 5, 040.

 Aristotle -considered 100,000 too many.
 Rousseau- 10,000 would be an ideal number.
 number of population is one of the factors that

influencing the power and maintenance of state.

 However, it is not a determining factor for
the existence of a state. Whether it is small
or large, the state can exist.
 There is no standard with regard to the

number of people in a state.

large number of population like China,
India, Indonesia, Japan, while other states
like Vatican, Malta, Djibouti and etc.
ii. Sovereignty/Supreme/exclusive power/
Sovereignty implies the ultimate authority, an
authority from which there can be no appeal.
a). Internal sovereignty:
 power of the state to make and enforce laws over its people.

 state as the ultimate decision maker in its territory.

 Thus, all individuals and groups of individuals have to
submit to the will of the state.
b). External sovereignty/Non- intervention/
 freedom from the control of external governments since
each state is recognized by other states as equal member and
participant in the international system.
 states do not have the right to interfere with the internal
politics of other states
iii) Fixed Territory

 modern state requires a definite portion of territory over

which it can have undisputed authority.
 No state can exist without fixed territory.
 Nomadic tribes- gypsy people, Jews before 1948
 Territory includes the surface of land, lakes and
rivers and air space above the land .
 Contiguous territory, but there are exceptions like
Alaska and Hawaii of the USA.
iv) Government/Ruling & Managing Body/

 It is the instrumentality through which the

sovereign will of the state finds concrete
expression.
State is the organization of which government
is the administrative machine.
 Soul and Brian of State- state can no function
without the governmental machinery.
V. Recognition /Acknowledgement/

 No state is completely isolated from the rest of the world.

 Political unit(State) to gain international personality, it must be
recognized by large portions of international community.
 To be a legal actor in the international stage, it must be
recognized by other actors.
 By state actors and non-state actors
 But, the failure to recognize by one or few states in the world does
not deprive its statehood.
 Thus, it is not indispensable attribute
 Example:
 Israel continues to be a state, albeit some state do not
recognize
 2.2.2. Theories on the Origin of State
A. Theory of Divine Origin
 State is the creation of God.
 state is established and governed by God/Allah himself
 God rule the state directly or indirectly through some

ruler who is regarded as the agent or vice-regent of

God/Allah.
 some are born to rule while other are born to be ruled

 the king has derived his authority directly from God.

Therefore, he/she is above the people and the law.
 hereditary right is indefeasible(impossible to annul,
avoid)
B. Genetic (Natural) Theory
 While divine origin theory is a matter of faith, the

genetic theory is based on sociological facts.

 State is an eventual extension(natural
expansion) of the family.
 Family is the first unit of social development, the last
is the state (it is the highest form of human
State
association).
Last group

Society
 as family is governed by the elder,
Family leader exercise power

Comm
unity

Tribe
C. Force Theory
 State is created by the use of physical force.
 It originates as a result of superior physical force;
 Subjugation of the weaker by the stronger.
 one group conquers another by force and leader of
the victor’s assumes ultimate authority
 in primitives times the man of physical

strengths was able to exercise some kind of

authority over other
 this condition of conquest resulted more

territories and finally led to the rise of states.

 Thus, State is nothing but the result of wars
and conflicts.
According to this theory, it is war that
begets the state.
force must have been an important

factor in the evolution of' the state

‘Blood and iron make the state.’

 That is why military allegiance and

territorial character as fundamental
features of modern political society .
D.  The Social Contract Theory
 State is the result of a deliberate and

voluntary agreement on the part of primitive

men emerging from a state of nature.
 man lived in the state-of-nature prior the

formation of a state.
State of Nature- a period without
authority of any kind.

How was the real appearance of this

historical time? and State origin?
 i). Hobbes and His View
State of Nature
 It was a period in human history that was no state at all
and no political order (lawless).
Was a thoroughly unpleasant one. "solitary,
poor, nasty, brutish and short" life.
 Man was the enemy of man

 Such condition forced persons to form a contract that

ensures them liberty, property and the entire of a good

life.
Thus, state emerged to terminate anarchism(lawless),
which threatens the life of all individuals in the state
of nature.
ii). John Lock
State of Nature;
 It was a pre-political period that man live peacefully
and enjoy natural rights.
 was a state of peace, good will and mutual assistance.
 Each man was a police man as well as
magistrate(maker & executer).
Thus, how State being?
 In these circumstances, there was a need for
common judge (superior authority) for common
agenda since men are biased or not impartial
judges in their own cases.
iii). Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 State of nature was a normal condition.
 Man was a noble savage. Man’s life was very simple
and happy in the oldest phase of civilization.
 Man is naturally good/innocent and independent life.
But, primitive goodness did not exist longer.
 An existence of private property erodes the goodness and

peace of man.
 It all led to the rise of selfish, evil desire(aggressive)
and natural life was destroyed.
 Thus, the people living in that condition desire to form a

union for common good;

 To terminate the state of nature, contract is made by
the people.
E.  The Marxist View
 no state in the most primitive stage of social life.
 The state arose when society divided in to two hostile
classes, each having its own interest.
 Bourgeoisie(the have class) and Proletariat(have
not)
 State is “ a necessary evil”
 It is necessary b/se it provides law and order for

citizens.
 It is evil b/se it restricts the freedom of individuals.

 Thus, Marxist writers consider the state as instruments of

oppression, exploitation and capital accumulation used by
the rich against the poor in a class-based society.
 State represents the interests of particular classes.
F. Evolutionary/Historical Theory
 The theory mainly emphasizes on two important
arguments.
i). The state is not a make(suddenly rise) but a growth.
 It is the product of a long process of evolution

covering hundreds and thousands of years.

ii). Not only one but many factors have played their
part.
 Thus, state is a result of many factors it includes
kinship, religion, force, economics, political
consciousness, etc.
 State Structure
This day, we find many states. All of these are not


similar in many ways. For instance;

very small or very large in their territorial extent
and population.
Some states are highly developed others are less
developed or very poor.
 socio-economic, and technological difference.
Some provide freedoms and rights and others
provide little or no freedom.
States can also be differentiated by the structures
of state they have.
 Basic Features of Unitary State Structure
i). Supremacy of central government
 central government has exclusively control the
power(strong single center).
 All the authorities and powers are exclusively in
the hands of the central government.
 local and regional political bodies(unit) over ruled
by the central government.
ii).Absence of subsidiary sovereign bodies
 No devolution of power(indivisible) but may
delegates certain administrative
responsibilities.
 Assigned specific functions/authority
iii). Sub-national units are created or
abolished by the will of the center
 existence of local units is on the interest of
the central government.
 Local units do not have an independent
constitutional status.
 unlike federal states where their
existence and power is legally
defined by the states constitution.
 so, central government may
increase or decrease their power.
 Potential Advantages and Disadvantages
i). Merits may include:-
 it can bring about uniformity of law, policy

and administration through out country.

 no conflict of authority, no confusion of

responsibility, no overlapping of jurisdiction.

 less expensive because the absence of

duplication of governmental departments

and services.
 A unitary constitution is suited for as small

country with a homogeneous population.

ii). Demerits can be explained as follows:
 Regulations of local policies and affairs by
distant since no strong regional institutions.
 additional burden of responsibility on the central
government
 Central authorities often lack knowledge of local
conditions and needs; and the consequence of it
is that local interests suffer.
 unitary state structure tends to suppress local
initiative and discourage interest in social
problems.
 Features of Federal State Structure
 power is formally divided between the central government and
regional governments.
 each of which is locally supreme in its own sphere
 powers are clearly specified in the constitution.

 States apply different principle and reasons for federation.

However;
 Some common features/federal principles

Written constitution
Division of power
Dual set of gove’t (shared rule and self rule)
Tiers of government
Level of gov’t act in their own jurisdiction
Umpiring/guardian of the constitutions/disputes
Bi-cameral House
 Brainstorming Questions

1. Could it be possible to say the Ethiopian state

structure is federal in nature?
2. Does federalism is a panacea for all problem
in political association?
  Pros and Cons of Federal System
i). Advantages of Federal System
 It allows unity without uniformity
 Encourages experimentation and innovation
 States as testing grounds or laboratories for new policies
and programs.
 States are labs to see what works
 It keeps government closer to the people
 Large number of citizens are involve
 More access for political participation
ii). Disadvantages/Drawback
 Makes national unity difficult to achieve and maintain.
 State governments may resist national policies
 It empowers regional elites to sustain and exacerbate
conflict (Centre-peripheral conflict)
 May permit economic inequality and racial discrimination

 Promotes inequality because state resources differ

 Law enforcement and justice are uneven

 Lacks uniformity in laws

 Services vary from state to state

 May promote local dominance by special interests

 Increase pressure for secession.

 Lack of effective central control

 Process on the Formation of Federation
There are two ways of forming federations.


Federations could be established in one of the two



ways.
1. Coming Together/Aggregation/
 Independent states voluntarily form a bigger union.
 Evolved from formerly independent states
 had all had a previous existence and desired to unite.
 Centripetal force like threat of big states
 E.g. U.S.A.(1789)-13 colonies
 Swiss(1848)- 25 cantons
Australia

 Initially, central gov’t is weak compared to states.

2.Holding Together/Disaggregation/
 Previously unitary state or a retiring colonial state

 A large country decides to divide its power b/n the

states and central governments

 Centrifugal forces/devolution/ like desire for local

autonomy.
 E.g. India, Germany Belgium,

Spain, Nigeria, Ethiopia.

 central gov’t is always more powerful than

regional states.
 Division of Power in Federal Structure

 Exclusive power: the power specifically either

left to the federal or regional gov’t alone.
 Concurrent power: is the common jurisdiction
of both levels of governments.
 Inevitability of overlapping jurisdiction
 Shared power
 Ethiopia’s case:-
 E.g. To levy and collect tax.
 Residual power: the power that is left to the
regional governments, except India and Canada.
  Quiz 2.
True/False
 1. According to divine right origin, state is the result of
social agreement_________
 Federation through aggregation is while independent
states form one big political union____

Short Answer
 Point out at least three principles of federal political
system
i)____________________
ii)________________________
iii).________________________
 3.3. Defining, Functions and Forms of
Government

3.3.1. Defining Government

 essential components and also an administrative

wing of a state.
 it is the body of the people and institution
that make, enforce and interpret laws.
 It is machinery or the arms or brains of the state
 It is the executive agent that acts in the name of

the state and its people.

 3.3.2. Functions of Government/State

i). Self-preservation:
 Maintenance of law and order in society.
 Protect the security of citizens territory from internal

and external threats.

 Protect human, democratic, political, social,
economic and cultural rights.
 (using its police, defense and court institutions)
ii). Conflict Management:
 government also involves conflict management and

resolution. i.e it builds institutions for resolving and

managing conflict.
iii). Protection of Property
 State provide means to protect private and public property.

iv) Provision of Goods and Services:

 Providing services and welfare to citizens
 through participating heavily in the provision of goods and

services.

v). Distribution of Resources:

 all governments invariably play the role of distributing

resources in their societies.

vi). Fulfillment of Social or Group Aspirations:

strive to fulfill the goals and interests of the society as a whole.

promotion of human rights, common good and international


peace.
 3.3.3. Forms and Systems of Government
Variables Parliamentarian System
i). Power r/n of Executive Fusion of Power
and Legislative  Fusion mean executive
emerge from Assembly
They are member of paria...
ii). Accountability of For parliament/Assembly
Executive
iii. Head of State& Gov’t Is divided as
Head of State-president
Head of Gov’t- Prime
Minister
iv). Resign No vote of confidence
At all time subject to
potential dismissal
v). focus of power Assembly/legislature
 Supreme political body
vi). Voters Has one tickets(can not split) Has two tickets
Elect the assembly only
Instances Australia, Belgium, Canada,
India , United Kingdom
Presidential System
Clear separation of power
Separate mean through
popular election
For the electorate/people
Is not divided
President is both head of
State and Gov’t
Impeachment
Can not be easily ousted by
legislative body
president
Elect president &congress
Mexico, Brazil, Argentina
 iii. Semi-presidential Systems.
 Also termed as hybrid-that is neither purely presidential nor
parliamentary.
Semi-presidentialism may be defined by three features:


A president who is popularly elected.

president has considerable constitutional authority.

 exists also a prime minister and cabinet, subject to the

confidence of the assembly majority.

 Thus, there is an existence of both president & prime Minster
power relationship between two offices may vary


 France for example, the president enjoys supremacy.

 South Africa, Germany, Russia, France
Comparative Analysis of Society, State and Government
Society State
It is a web of social relationship It is an instrument to serve the
members.
Held together a society
In terms of time. It comes first It came in to existence at a
to state certain stage of human
It is historically as well as development.
logically prior to the state.
Society is natural to human There have been times when
beings. Man can’t live outside it. man has lived without the state.
It operate on the bases of It exercises authority with the
customs and conventions. help of laws enacted and enforced
can punish through moral by Government.
persuasion and social ostracism or  Through force
expulsion, can not imprison
 State Government

It is the whole It is only a part of the state that is

its working machinery
It is abstract It is concrete
Soft ware(know based Hard ware (tangible)
on its function)

Its membership Only a small part of the total

comprises all the population participates in the various
nationals organs of government
It is more or less Government come and go
permanent
Sovereignty is an In practice all governments are
attribute of the state subject to varies limitations.
An Overview of Society, State and
Government in Ethiopian
(Reading Assignment)
  Quiz 2

Say True or False

1. Federal political structure is a panacea for all political problem
of human association
Fill in the Blank
2. For whom residual power is given in almost all federal
state_____________
3. Name one state that has parliamentarians system of
government________
Short Essay
4. Compare and Contrast Hybrid system vis-à-vis parliamentarian
system of government(2 pt).
 Well Come to The
Session of Chapter
Four
Democracy, Constitution
& Human Rights
 CHAPTER-FOUR
4.Constitution, Democracy and Human
Rights
4.1. Understanding Constitution
Introduction:

State/government cannot run according to the sudden, and



fanciful idea.

Thus, there has to be certain rules and principles.



 This set of principle is called the Constitution.

What a constitution mean?

What a constitution does to the society and

state?
Why do we need a constitution?

 What does Constitutionalism mean also?

 4.1.1. Defining Constitution and
Constitutionalism
i)Constitution;
 Constitution can be defined as a fundamental law
written or unwritten that establishes the basic
characteristics of both the society and government.
contains basic principles according to
which a state is governed.
determine the form of government/state structure. (E.g. Art 1

FDREC)
defines the scope of governmental sovereign

powers(vertical/horizontal division).
govern internal/external affairs of the state
specifies the relation between citizen and state(right and

duties).
ii) Constitutionalism

 A doctrine that gov’t should be faithful to their

constitution.
 Government is subject to limitations in accordance
with the general rules rather than arbitrarily.
Mere existence of a constitution itself does not imply
Constitutionalism.

 Thus, is it more than simply having a document.

 Even a dictator could create a rulebook calling it
Constitution.
 Thus, its connotations:-
 enshrines respect for human dignity
perfectly mirroring the popular will
limits government power
should be practical on the ground/not nominal
 4.1.2. Major Characteristic of a
Constitution
 Constitution has distinctive features that
distinguish it from any other laws

i) Generality:
 general framework of the law and the government

 Constitutional principles are a guideline for others

laws
 Other laws provide the details of the subject
ii) Supremacy:-
 As a mother law of the land.
 The source of other laws in a county-other laws should
derived from the constitution.
 To ensure this supremacy, the constitution needs to have
 a supremacy clause( E.g: Art 9 FDRE)
 judicial review-Supreme Court or specialized
constitutional court, HoF(Ethiopia)
 need special amending procedures
iii) Permanency:
 unlike laws, constitution is made for undefined period of

time
 serve for a long lap of ages

 constitutional amendment can keep its permanency

iv) Original:-
 because it is directly made by the people as the direct

expression of the will of the people.

 It requires public legitimacy.
4.1.3. Functions of Constitution
i). It served as a Framework for Government.
 Constitution of state is a brief and a general outline
of duties and rights of governments.
 Thus, it guides effectively the power of gov’t

ii). It Provides Government Stability

 Since it acts as “organizational chart”, “institutional
blue prints”;
 provide a mechanism through which any potential
conflicts can be adjudicated and resolved.
iii). It Limits the Powers of Government-Constitutionalism
 In a constitutionally limited government officials are
always abided by the constitution.
iv). It Protects Individual and Collective Rights.
 provide or lay down the relationship between the state

and the individual/collective ones.

 Like FDRE conspicuously provide on- Art 13-44

v). It served as Vehicle for Empowering States and

Weapon for Legitimizing Regimes
 It mark out the existence of states, and claims their

sphere of independent authority.

 Constitution is also building legitimacy for regimes.

 the right to rule or the validity power to govern.

Vi). Blue Prints for establishing Values and Goals

 the fundamental aims and principles are described

explicitly in preambles to constitutional documents.

4.1.4. Typology of Constitutions
Constitution of a states differ one another in pertaining to:
Distribution of political power-vertical
Separation of power among branches of government
The procedure employed for amending the constitution
In their forms and appearances

i) Based on Amendment State Structure

Procedure distribution of power
Forms b/n the different
Rigid levels of governments
Written Constitution
Federal vs
Flexible
Unwritten Constitution Unitary
1. Written and Unwritten Constitution
(codified/uncodified)
 classification of constitution on the basis of

whether they are unwritten or written is

illusory(unclear)
This dichotomy is false distinction as
there is no constitution which is entirely
unwritten and nor is there a constitution
which is entirely written.
1. Based on its forms-it means
 First- with the degree of codification,
 second- with the degree of written detail.

i) Written Constitution: is key constitutional provisions are

found compiled together.
 having an assemblage of a single document
For instance-all Federal Nations
ii) Unwritten Constitution: is a set of rules, regulations
passed by parliament at different time that are not
collected in a single document.
Statute law(law enacted by legislature)
 dispersed legal documents, which serve as
constitution.
 For instance, in Britain dispersed document like
 Magna carat (great charter) of 1215
 The bill of rights of 1689,
 People Representation Act of 1832,
 Women Franchise Act of 1928
 the Acts of Union (1707 and 1800) when the British
were united with Scotland and Ireland respectively.
 Example;
kingdom of Bhutan, Israel
 Advantages of Written Constitution:
 Clear and definite: people have a clear understanding
about the powers of the government.
 Rights of the people are visible.
 More stable and easily accessible
 a text can be made available to all visitors.
 Disadvantages of Written Constitution:
 it fails to adapt itself to changing conditions easily.
 It is rigid and may retard the growth of the country.
Advantages of Unwritten Constitution:
 adaptability to changing circumstances
 prevents revolutions/less controversial
 It covers from shocks.

Disadvantages of Unwritten Constitution:

 Unstable

 it would be difficult to quickly determine which

aspects of the constitution is violated
 unsuitable to democracies.
 2. Rigid Vs Flexible Constitution

 Based on the degree or complexity of amending the

constitution.
 The procedural requirements of their amendment

i) Rigid constitution which set-up complex and special

amendment procedure.
 amendment procedure relatively complex.
 Some Examples
 USA, it needs 2/3 majorities in both houses and
¾ of federating states.
 Ethiopia-requires majority support from regional
states and 2/3 from both house
ii)Flexible Constitution: Constitutional amendment is easy
and immediately to changing circumstances.
 Amendment procedures are relatively simple.
 central legislature is vested to amend the constitution
UK and Israel
 Advantage and Disadvantage of Rigid and
Flexible Constitution

Advantages of Rigid Constitution:

 Rights properly safeguarded;
 Suited to all kinds of people;
 Commands the confidence of the people.

Disadvantages of Rigid Constitution:

 Conservative in its character;
 Advantages of Flexible Constitution:
 adaptability
 country may be saved from revolutions

 Disadvantages of Flexible Constitution:

 unstable
 It may not be suitable for democracies.
3.2. Constitutional History and Dev’t
in Ethiopia
Pre-1931 constitutional history.
 Fetha Negest-religions and legal provision
 kibre Negest -defined who should become
king in Ethiopia i.e., succession of the throne.
 Ser’ate Mengist-provided certain
administrative protocol and directives.
 are known to be traditional documents of

constitutionally relevant in nature.

i.1931 Constitution
 unwritten era of the constitution came to
its end in1931 with the promulgation of
the first written constitution
 Motivation-Two reasons

to join the international organization.

to be a legal weapon in the process of
centralizing governmental power and in
limiting the authority of the nobility.
 containing fifty-five articles
 1931 Constitution
Chapters Issues
Chapter I The Ethiopian Empire and the Succession to the Throne

Chapter II The Powers and Prerogatives of the Emperor

Chapter III The Rights Recognized by the Emperor as Belonging to

the Nation, and the Duties Incumbent on the Nation

Chapter IV The Deliberative Chambers of the Empire

Chapter V The Ministers of the Empire

Chapter VI Jurisdiction of Judges Had Seven

chapters and 55
Articles.
Chapter VII The Budget of the Imperial Government
1955 Revised Constitution
Chapter Issues
Chapter-1 The Succession to the Throne

Chapte-2 The Powers and Prerogatives of

the Emperor
Chapte-3 Rights and Duties of the People

Chapte-4 The Ministers of the Empire

had 8 chapters & 121
Chapte-5 The Legislative Chambers Articles.

Chapte-6 The Judicial Power

Chapte-7 Finance

Chapte-8 General Provisions

 1987 PDRE
Chapter Issues
Chapter 1 Political System
Chapter 2 Economic System
Chapter 3 Social and Cultural Policy
Chapter 4 Defense of country, protection of
people and Revolution.
Chapter 5 Foreign Policy
Chapter 6 Citizenship, Freedom, Rights and
Duties.
Chapter 7 Fundamental Freedom, Rights
and Duties of Citizens.
Chapter 8 Forms of state
Chapter 8 Forms of state
Chapter 9 The National Shengo
Chapter Council of state
10
Chapter 11 President of the Republic
Chapter Council of Minister 17 CHAPTERS
and 119
12 ARTICLES.
Chapter Organs of Power and Administration
13 administrative and autonomous Regions.
Chapter The Judiciary
14
Chapter Procuracy
15
Chapter Flag, Emblem, national Anthem,language
16 and capital city.
Chapter Legal force and amendment of the
17 constitution.
 Some achievements:-
 introduced some very important innovations(branch
of government) to the Ethiopian political history;
i, established a bicameral parliament of the upper and
the lower house.
 heralded the establishment of chamber of
Deputies and the Senate
 served as Communication Bridge between the
government and the people than making laws.
 These chambers can neither propose policy nor
oppose a policy proposed by the emperor.
 both houses play advisory role
ii,. institutionalized the ministerial system.
Individually and collectively responsible to
monarch
iii. judicial branch
ordinary courts and administrative tribunals.
At the apex of the court system was the
emperor’s chilot.
ii. The 1955 Revised Constitution
 Italian occupation over Ethiopia
 Socio-economic transformation of the country
 increased the country’s access to the outside world and
caused slight diffusion of western ideas in to the mind of
the people.
 Motivation-the Ethio-Eritrian federation

 Eritrea is an italic word it mean Read Sea(በ1890 ጣሌያን

ኤሪትሪያ ሴሉ ቀይ ባህር ማለት ነዉ)

 Before 1952 Eritrea was under the colonial rule of Italy
since 1889.
 It was the defeat of the Italian forces in the WWII that
brought the Eritrean issue in to attention.
 British mandate between 1942-1952 Eritrea finally
decided federate with Ethiopia.
 Outcome of the federation
 led to the incorporation of two other documents

i. Federal Act- was a document that specified the

terms of agreements for the federation between Eritrea
and Ethiopia
ii. Eritrean Constitution- Eritrean established their
own constitution
 Both documents were far modern and better than the

previous 1931 Ethiopian constitution.

 Since they incorporated progressive political
elements like democracy and human right, which
were unimagined in the 1931 constitution.
 it has given a textual recognition for the rights and
liberties of citizens even if it was short of practice.
 Departure from predecessor:-
chamber of Deputies whose members were
elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage
legal charter for the consolidation of
absolutism
 nobility drawn from Showa-
Showanization of the state
 creation of a modern army
 creation of modern civilian and military
bureaucracy
iii. The 1987 Constitution of PDRE(Dergue)
 Before the birth of the PDRE constitution a

number of historical events took place within the

state
 The preceding two monarchical constitutions were

failed to address the basic questions.

like religious and ethnic diversity
 1960 and early 1970 was the fermentation of

revolutionary forces.
 Immediately after coming to power the Derg
issued proc No 1/1974. The proclamation
addressed some basic issues.
 It suspended the 1955-revised constitution
 Dissolved the two chamber parliaments
Replace by National Shengo
 Legally suspended the Emperor from power and
established the military government.
 This proclamation cannot be given a constitutional status
because it does not touch basic constitutional issues
other than deposing the Emperor from power.
 between 1974-1987 was a period of constitutional
vacuum in Ethiopia.
IV. The Transitional Charter (1991-1994)
 Derge regime crumble

External-Economic stagnation and global

changes
Internal factors- the struggle of several
liberation movement operating along ethnic
lines.
 Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic

Front (EPRDF) was born in 1989.

OPDO,TPLF,ANDM, (SEPDF in 1994)

National conference was held in Addis Ababa
from July 1-5, 1991 at Africa Hall. Herman
Cohen
 signing of the Charter by the representatives of

some ’31” political parties-

 Transitional Charter:-it was a very short
document that addressed only some
fundamental issues adopted as interim
constitution.
 It served as the law of the land for the
transitional period
 establishment TGE.
 also agreed on the modalities of the
transition process.
Established a “Constitutional Commission”
Comprised
29 general assembly
Executive committee
Various other expert committee
  general elections for electing members of the
constitutional assembly that ratifies the constitution
were to be held
creation of an 87 seat Council of Representatives
In total EPRDF secured 32 seats.
The OLF secured 12 seats.
Other ethnically based parties ranging from 1
to 3.
 nationalities to preserve their identity,

 administer their own affairs within their own defined

territory
 the right to participate in the central government based on

fair and proper representation,

 the right to self-determination.
 TGE also establish by law local and regional
councils defined on the basis of nationality
 Article 3 of Proc. 7/92 enumerated sixty-four
identified nations, nationalities.
 set up fourteen regions(proc No 1/1991).
 five region decided to amalgamate
 national/regional governments had law-
making, executive and judicial powers.
 But the TC did not use the terminology-
federalism.
V. The post-1995 Federal System of FDRE.
 Since 21 August 1995 the constitution was

put in to effect
 The constitution was drafted to address the

ills of the previous regime.

 With a view to:-

 addressing the age old cause of the state

crisis,
 intends to decentralize power; resources
 accommodating the country's various
ethno-linguistic groups.
Part of the 1995 FDRE constitution


 Federal state structure

 Parliamentary form of government
 Multi-culture system
 Decentralization of power
 4.2. Democracy
4.2.1. Meaning and Concepts of Democracy

 Democracy as a virtuous good/moral value,

 All states today profess to be democracies.
 has attained a marked popularity in the world.
a demand of all freedom-loving.
 Democracy is a “mantra” term.
 it seems obvious that everybody understands what it
is all about.
 Democracy is a very contested concept.
 No political terms is subject to contradictory definition

as democracy.
 Like the former Soviet union, Chinese or North
Korea … call themselves democratic state.
 As a concept defies a simple answer.
 Albeit, most commonly used terms in political

science lexicon and mass media.

Lack conceptual precision
 Strictly speaking, there are conceptual and
methodological difficulties.
i). Owing to political systems always in a continual
state of evolution.
 Unimaginable in political climate of one period
become possible in other period.
ii). Multi-headed concept.
 cover wide ranges of political systems
 Despite these facts, scholars, and others
attempted to define democracy in various ways.
i). The lexicon definition entails ‘……...people
hold the ruling power either directly or indirectly
through their elected representatives’.
ii). From the perspective of Participation,
 the mobilization of peoples around common issues.
 the set-up forums for the expression of alternative
views.
 the implementation of decision-making based on
majority rule.
iii). Statesman, Abraham Lincoln defined
democracy as;
"…. government of the people, by the people and for
the people."
i. government of the people.
 source of legitimacy /government officials is from
nothing but the people)
ii. Government for the people
 officials should act for the advantage and interest of
the people.
iii. government by the people
 implies public participation in government affairs and
governs themselves(popular self-government).
In Nutt Shell,
 This day, among the various definitions of them
are: Democracy as a system of governments;
 It is the in which ultimate authority resides with the
people.
 it preaches about liberty of individuals/ groups.
 It is a way of cooperation, and compromise and
living and working together.
 It is a majority rule in which the minority rights are
protected or respected.
 It is an institutionalization of freedom
 Forms of Democracy

i. Direct Democracy/ Pure Democracy

required all citizens assemble together to enact, approve the laws


and they implement these rules too.

It is the most complete and pure model of democracy. 


 Allowed all/every citizen to participate in the decision making

process.
without intermediary elected body to make public
decisions.
Citizens directly engaged in the judicial process. No separate
officials or court systems existed as are followed now.
 Classical Democracy
 Brainstorm Question
 Would you think that direct democracy can be
applied in Ethiopia? If your answer is Yes or No,
please would you give your justification?

 Itis more practical in small community,

organizations, parties, local units /kebeles,
trade unions
 ii. Representative/Indirect Democracy

Indirect:
 Because people rule themselves through their representative.

 people elect their representatives and representative’s rule

for the people.

Indirect democracy now a day prevails in the present world.
What could be the reason for this change?
1. Small city states gave way to nation states/Diversity
2. Higher growth of population in nation states than in city states.
3.Growth of the ideas of equality, and equal opportunity for all.
4. Modern states allow suffrage to women
Fundamental Values and Principles of
Democracy
 What distinguishes democratic political system
from anti-democratic systems?.
A given political system to be qualified as
democratic, it must exhibit certain
universal and fundamental values and
principles.
 signposts denoting that a particular state

is on the democracy track;

 Standards/Pillars upon which
democracy is founded and formulated
i). Popular Sovereignty
 Governments’ legitimacy is remaining on the peoples

or
 people are the sources of authority
 People is authoritative to authorize as well as
depose officials from power.
 Governments derive their power and
authority from the people.
ii). Popular Participation
 Active participation of people in decision-making

process, i.e. self-government.

 Active participation is cornerstone to build a
better democracy.
 Its facets include;
 standing and voting for election
 becoming informed, debating on issues,
 attending community or civic meetings,
 being members of party,
 private voluntary organizations,
 paying taxes, and
 even peaceful protesting etc.
iii). Equality/Justice as fairness/
 Equality means all individuals are valued equally,

have equal opportunities, and do not be

discriminated
enjoy similar right and duties.
 every law should apply to all citizens in equal

manner; regardless of their differences:

sex, colors, language, religion, culture, and
other ethnic and historical backgrounds.
iv). Rule of Law
 law is a legal body governing the relations among the people.
 It implies that no one is above the law.
Everyone is equal before law including top
government officials
 With the absence of rule of law;

Unlimited government who can jeopardize the

freedom of the people.
Conflicts, instability and upheavals.
Destruction of mutual respect and tolerance.
Absence of human and democratic rights
protection
v). Majority Rule with Minority Rights:
 decisions are made with the;

interest and the will of majority, and

Majorities voice prevail over that of the
minorities.
 Likein election, parliament, or local community
meetings prevails over those who disagree.
 Nevertheless, it is not a system in which the views
of minorities is suppressed or ignored.
Minorities should be given with the right to
freely air their views.
 vii). Regular, Free and Fair Election
 Regular: Elections must take place within
specified time.
 Free: there should not be intimidations and

threats to citizens before, during or after election.

 Fair: candidates running for elections should be

provided with equal opportunities

 without any discrimination.
 voters to choose their representatives correctly.
 counting of votes must provide accurate results
 reporting of the results should be made public
honesty.
vi). Accountability and Transparency
government officials responsible for their actions.


 answerable to the decisions and acts they took.

 Officials must make decisions and perform their duties
according to the will and wishes of the people, not for
themselves.

Transparency information is accessible, open and, clear



to the public about what government is doing or plan to

do. Or
 implies institutional activities are openness to the
public.
 For government to be accountable the people must be

aware of what is happening in the country.

Viii). Political Tolerance:
o Tolerance as a culture-Political culture

 refers to the accommodation of divergent views,

believes, cultures, languages etc.
It means accepting and respecting other
people's customs, beliefs, opinions etc.
 It enable for the peaceful co-existence of

people.
 enables you to hold opinions, beliefs and

positions that are different from your

own.
 Major Theories of
Democracy
 On the basis of the degree to which a
government intervention in the economic
affairs of people,
democracy can further be categorized in
to liberal and non- liberal types.
i). Liberal Democracy
 Advocate the principle of private enterprise .
 discourages state intervention in economic
affairs.
 The role of the government in the economic
spheres is laissez fair (minimal).
 based on free market economy.
 accept inequality or privilege to safeguard

individual freedom.
political &legal equality but not economic
equality.
 State intervenes to protect/ guarantee of basic
ii). Socialist Democracy
 emphasis to strong state intervention in the economy.
 it is based on the acceptance of economic and social equality.

Liberal democracy encourages a society where there is

class contradiction and private property. Where as,
socialist democracy attempts to create classless society
by eliminating private properties
 social democracy calls for social justice and economic
empowerment of the subaltern classes.
 To this effect, it concerned with the provision of social

security service, housing, free education, health and medical

cares, and the like.
 Actors in Democratization Process
1. Political Parties:
 Political Party is a group of persons professing the same
political doctrine.
 Organized group trying to secure control over
government.
 Political parties perform key tasks like;
 working out alternative programs to the government.
 Articulating public policy priorities and civic
needs.
 Channeling public opinion from citizens to
government.
 provide a means through which
 individuals influence public affairs, express their
discontent or support governmental action.
 Activating and mobilizing citizens in to
participating political decisions.
 Enforce gov’t to be more responsible, transparent
and accountable to the people.
 by criticizing and commenting on government
policies and actions.
2. NGO/Civil Society
organized groups and institutions that are independent of the state,
voluntary, and self-generating and self-reliant.
 They differ from political parties only in their final goal,
but they all contribute to:
 consciousness raising.
 protection of individual and collective rights
 Educating the people about their rights and
responsibilities
 Supporting and Widening the Democratic Process
3. Interest Groups
 an associations on the basis of the free will of
individuals.
 nonprofit oriented and no political objectives.
 major objective is to influence government officials to
support certain policies.
 Through interest groups, citizens communicate their

wants on policy goals to government leaders.

 For example, a labor union works to gain higher
wages and other benefits
 Organizations of disabled persons,
 Women’s Association and
 Student’s Association and Trade Union
5. Mass Media and Democratization Process
 It includes newspapers, television, radio, books,
posters, magazines, and cinema etc
 media play a vital role by:-

 creating, moulding and reflecting public opinion.

 being channels of expression of public opinion.
 set public agenda; it is a list of societal problems
that both political leaders and citizens agree for need
to concerted action of government
 make government officials accountable to the people
 Potential Advantage and Disadvantage
Merits/Advantages of Democracy
Democracy creates an efficient form of government

Democracy upholds individual and collective Rights

Democracy Educates the Mass

Order and progress and stable goes together in democracy

Demerits/Disadvantages of Democracy
Begs the question who the people are and how they can

participate in rule.
Prefers quantity rather than quality(majority voice),

Inefficient /short vision/

Political parties mislead, misinform and misguide electorate.

Plutocracy/rule of the rich)

 4. 3. Human Rights
4.3.1. Defining What HR mean?
o The precise definition of Right is controversial.

 At a very basic level, HR can be defined as

entitlements that all human beings assert merely
because we are human.
 are right which belong to all of us, simply
because we are human beings.
 The rights we have simply because we are
human.
A person inherently entitled simply because
he/she is a human being .
 4.3.2. Basic Features of Human Rights

1. HRs are Based on Equality: Applied equally at any condition,

 irrespective of sex, ethnic group, color, language,
nation, age, citizenship, religion, political outlook,
social position, etc.

2. HRs are Universal: applied to all people everywhere at all

times (place and time ).

3. HRs are Indisputable: not subjected to different arguments.

 As they are natural, we cannot argue over the elements of

human rights.
 Since, an extension of Natural Rights
4. HRs are Eternal.
 As far as human society exists on earth human rights

continue to exist.
 any change in government or social, political, economic

phenomenon do not have impact.

 lost only at death

5. HRs are Irreducible.

 Human rights cannot be reduced to different interpretation.

 Should applied in their fuller forms.

 Example: Right to life could be realized as far as

the right to food is secured
6. HRs are Inalienable: cannot be separated from human nature.
 No body can alienate(taken away)human rights from
human nature because they are fundamental.

7. HRs are Inviolable: do not attack during promotion and

protection.
 No state and individual can deprive an individual
human rights.

8. HRs are not to be given by government.

 Government is not a body that gives human rights.

 we cannot inherit it rather we possess them by our nature

of human being.
 They are not transferred rights.
 4.3.3. SCOPE AND CONTENTS OF HUMAN
RIGHTS
 developed from time to time in terms of scope and

content
 Karel. Vasak a French jurist classify HRs as:-

 they are closely interdependent

i. First Generation Rights

 closely associated with the English, French and

American Revolutions
 include those rights which are called civil and
political rights
 set out in the first eighteen articles of the UDHR and
political rights are those set out in Articles 19 to 21 of the
UDHR
 also referred as “ Negative Rights”

 But some right like right to security of person and right

government actions
 It includes:-
 Freedom from racial and equivalent forms of discrimination
 Freedom of Expression
 Freedom from slavery or involuntary servitude.
 Protection from unlawful acts by the state such as imprisonment,
forced labor, freedom from torture and from inhuman or cruel or
degrading treatment or punishment.
 right to life, fair trial etc….
 right to vote and to stand for office
 Freedom of assembly and Association
ii. Second Generation of Rights

 Also named as “Economic, social and cultural

rights”
 Its origin was the socialist movement of the

nineteenth century in Europe.

 especially, the 1917 Bolshevik revolution
 also termed as “positive rights”
 require positive state intervention in fulfilling
the quest for these rights.
 For instance, the right to social security.
Social and Economic Rights like:
o stated in article 22- 27 of the UDHR. Like:-
 right to work and protection against unemployment
 Equality of opportunity (in education, labor market etc…)
 right to get adequate standard of education, health services

 right to adequate standard of living (includes basic needs-

food, shelter and clothing)

Cultural Rights: Art 15 of ICESCR/27and 28 of UDHR

 express, develop and promote ones own culture

 speak, to write and develop one’s language

 preserve one’s history and cultural heritage.

iii. Third Generations of Rights
 claimed right in article 28 of UDHR.
 Emerged due to the emergence of independent
countries from colonial rule.
 referred to as Environmental and Developmental

Rights.
 It includes:-

 right to self determination of people (Economic,

social, political and cultural)
 participate in the common heritage of mankind
 right to clean environment
 right to global peace
 right to humanitarian disaster relief.
 4.3.4. Human Rights Instruments
 serve as ‘patrons’ of the human rights
i). Human Rights Commissions:
 protection of citizens from, civil and other human

rights violation, discrimination through:

 receive and investigate the complaints of human
rights abuses.
 improving community awareness of human rights.
 provoking discussion about human rights
 organizing seminars;
 holding counseling services and meetings;
 disseminating human rights publications.
ii). Ombudsmen
 Investigatethe individual complaints at public
administration.
 Ensure fairness and legality in the public
institution
 protect the rights of individuals who are
victims at public administration.
 acts as an important mediator between an
injured individual and government.
 toensure fairness and legality in the public
administration
iii). Specialized Institutions: -

 It establish for vulnerable groups facing them all

discrimination.
 persons belonging to ethnic, linguistics or
religious minorities.
providing material and consultative assistance
responsible for monitoring the effectiveness
of existing laws relate to the group.
The END

Best of Luck!!!