COMETS, KUIPER BELT AND

SOLAR SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Silvia Protopapa & Elias Roussos
Lectures on “Origins of Solar Systems”
February 13-15, 2006

Part I: Solar System Dynamics

 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Part I: Solar System Dynamics

• Orbital elements & useful parameters
• Orbital perturbations and their importance
• Discovery of Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt and basic facts for these
two populations

Part II: Lessons from Pluto for the origin of the

Solar System
(Silvia Protopapa)

Part III: Comets

(Cecilia Tubiana - SIII Seminar, 15/2/2006)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

The Solar System

 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

• Are the positions of the planets and other solar system objects
random?
• Do they obey certain laws?
• What can these laws tell us about the history and evolution of
the solar system?
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

• Known asteroids+comets+trans-Neptunian objects>104

• Small object studies have statistical significance
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Basic orbital elements (ellipse)

e=0: circle
rp ra
e<1: ellipse
v
e=1: parabola
r
e>1: hyperbola

2.a
a (1  e )
2
r
1  e cos v rp: Radius of periapsis rp  a(1  e)
(perihelion)
a: semimajor axis
e: eccentricity
ra: Radius of apoapsis ra  a(1  e)
v: true anomaly (0…360 deg) (aphelion)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Basic orbital elements (continued)

i: inclination (0…180 deg)

(always towards a reference
plane)

Reference plane for solar

system orbits:
• Ecliptic=(plane of Earth’s
orbit around the Sun)
• All planetary orbital planes
are oriented within a few
degrees from the ecliptic
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Basic orbital elements (continued)

Ω: Right ascension of the

ascending node (0...360 deg)
(always towards a reference
direction)
ω

Ω ω: Argument of periapsis

Ascending
node
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Useful orbital parameters (elliptical orbit)

M: mass of central body
2 1
1) Velocity: u  GM    m: mass of orbiting body
r a
r: distance of m from M

3
(M>>m)
a
2) Period: T  2
GM

GMm
3) Energy: E (Constant!)
2a
 
L  m  r  u,
4) Angular
momentum: L  m G  M  a  (1  e 2 ) (Constant!)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Orbital perturbations
GM M: mass of central body
U total     Ri
r m: mass of orbiting body
i
r: distance of m from M

  mi: mass of disturbing body “i”

 1 ri  r 

Ri  Gmi     3  ri: distance of mi from M
 ri  r ri 
Ri: disturbing function
U: Gravitational potential

Dependence on:
• mass of disturbing body
• proximity to disturbing body
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Orbital perturbations & orbital elements

Perturbations

Non-spherical Non-gravitational
Third body masses forces

• Long term effects

Sources:
• Solar radiation
Size, shape and Precession: • Outgassing
orbital plane: change in the
change in (a,e,i) • Heating
orientation of the
of the orbit orbit (Ω,ω)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Orbital perturbations (example: third body)

Why they should not be neglected?

Satellites 1&2 (around Earth):

a=150900 km
e=0.8
i=0 deg
Satellite 1: only Earth’s gravity
Satellite 2: Earth + Moon + Sun
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Orbital perturbations: consequences

1. Collisions
• Important in the early solar system
• Not only the result of perturbations

2. Capture to orbit
• Important for giant planets

3. Scattering of solar system objects

• Escape orbits
• Distant populations of small bodies

4. Chaotic orbits
5. Stable or unstable configurations:
resonances
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

What is a resonance?
• Integer relation between periods

• Periodic structure of the disturbing function Ri

Resonances

Orbit-orbit Spin-orbit

(e.g. Earth-Moon)
Secular (usually
(Precession periods) amplification of e)

Mean motion
(orbital periods)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Mean-motion resonance
• Simple, small integer relation between orbital periods

 a1 
3
T1  2 
 GM  T12 a13
   2 3 (Kepler’s 3rd law)
 a2  T2 a2
3

T2  2 GM 
 

Favored mean motion resonance in solar system: T1:T2=N/(N+1),

N: small integer
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Example 2:1 mean motion resonance

2 t=2T1=T2
t=0 t=T1
1

0 T1 2T1 4T1 6T1 8T1… t

 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Example 2:1 resonance

Satellite 1: 2:1 resonant orbit with Earth’s moon (green)
Satellite 2: not in a resonant orbit (yellow)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Resonance in the solar system: a few examples

1. Jupiters moons (Laplace)
• Io in 2:1 resonance with
Europa, Europa in 2:1
resonance with Ganymede

2. Saturn’s moons & rings

• Mimas & Tethys, Enceladus
& Dione (2:1),
• Gravity waves in Saturn’s
rings

3. Kirkwood gaps in asteroid

belt
• Resonances can lead to
eccentric orbits collisions
• Empty regions of asteroids

4. Trojan asteroids (Lagrange):

(1:1 resonance with Jupiter)
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Solar system dynamics & comets

• Comets are frequently observed
crossing the inner solar system
•Many comets have high eccentricities
(e~1)
E.g.:

rp  a(1  e) 1 e

   ra  rp
ra  a(1  e)  1 e

For rp~ 5 AU, e~0.999 ra~10000 AU

 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Comets: classification (according to orbit size)

T>200 y Comets T<200 y
(>1500 with well
known orbits)

Long Short
Period (LP) Period (SP)

a>10000 AU a<10000 AU T<20 y T>20 y

Jupiter Halley
New Returning
family type
Orbital Distribution: the Oort cloud

Most comets are LP and come

from a distant source

Orbital energy per

unit mass
From the Oort cloud to the Kuiper belt
First (after Pluto…) trans-Neptunian belt object discovery

1992QB1
Additional slides
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Trans-Neptunian objects: classification

Trans-Neptunian
Objects
(Kuiper Belt)

Resonant
Classical
belt
• Out of resonances Scattered
• Low eccentricity belt
• a<50 AU
• High eccentricities
Other
Plutinos resonances
• Origin unknown

3:2 with
Neptune
 ----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----

Orbital perturbations (example: third body)

Why they should not be neglected?

Satellites 1&2 (around Earth):

a=880000 km
e=0.7
i=0 deg
Satellite 1: only Earth’s gravity
Satellite 2: Earth + Moon + Sun