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 Direct Method:
 The unknown parameter (measurand) is directly
compared against a standard. The result is expressed as a
numerical number and a unit. The standard, in fact is a
physical embodiment of a unit.
 Measurement by direct methods are not always possible,
feasible and practicable.

 Indirect Method:
 The unknown parameter (measurand) is compared
against a secondary standard.
 These methods in most of the  cases, are inaccurate because
they involve human factors. The are also less sensitive.
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 Absolute Instruments:
 These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity
under measurement in terms of physical constants of the
instrument.
 Examples: Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh's Current
Balance.
 Secondary Instruments:
 These instruments are so constructed that the quantity
being measured can only be measured by observing the
output indicated by the instrument.
 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an
absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which
has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
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 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument {DC}
 Moving Iron Instrument {AC}
 Electro-Dynamometer Instrument {DC & AC}
 Induction Type Instrument {AC}
 Hot Wire Instrument {DC & AC}
 Thermocouple Instrument {DC & AC}
 Electrostatic Type Instrument {DC & AC}
 Rectifier Type Instrument {DC & AC}
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  Galvanometer is the historical
name given to a moving coil
electric current detector.
 When a current is passed through
a coil in a magnetic field, the coil
experiences a torque proportional
to the current.
 If the coil's movement is opposed
by a coil spring, then the amount
of deflection of a needle attached
to the coil may be proportional to
the current passing through the
coil.
 Such "meter movements" were at
the heart of the moving coil meters
such as voltmeters and ammeters
until they were largely replaced
with solid state meters.
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 Construction and Working
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 Pivot & Jewel Bearing
Pointer

Spring
Scale
Mirror
Balancing Weight

Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet

N Core S

Coil & Former Pivot & Jewel Bearing

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 Deflecting Torque Ƭd = NBLdI = GI
 
Where G = a constant = NBLd
 
Where N = Number of turns in the moving coil
 
B = magnetic flux density between the magnetic poles
 
L = Length of moving coil
 
d = Breadth of moving coil
 
As the controlling torque is provided by the spring, therefore
 
 Ƭc = KƟ

Where K = Spring constant

 
Ɵ = Angular movement of coil
 
At steady state condition, deflecting and controlling torque shall be equal,
 
Ƭd = Ƭc
 
⇒ GI = KƟ
01/07/21 ⇒ Ɵ = (G / K)I  ……………………(1) 21
 Construction and Working
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 Basic working principle:
“ There is repulsion between two iron
pieces as they are magnetized with
the same polarity. ”

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 A hollow circular coil is used and one of
the iron pieces is attached inside the
hollow coil.
The other iron piece is attached to the
spindle.
The current to be measured is passed
through the coil, coil produced the
magnetic field.
As both the iron pieces are placed in the
same magnetic field, they are magnetized
with same polarity.
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 Hence the deflecting torque is produced
due to the force of repulsion between two
iron pieces.
Independent of the direction of current,
the deflection is produced in the same
direction.
the force of repulsion between iron
pieces is directly proportional to square of
current hence scale is non-uniform.
Controlling torque is produced by either
spring or gravity control.
Damping is produced by the air friction
damping.
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 Where, k is constant.
Now, as the instrument is gravity controlled, controlling torque will be

Where, k' is constant. At steady state condition,

Where, K is constant

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 Scale

Pointer

Pole Shoe

Moving Coil

N Yoke
S

Magnet Coil

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Without current in moving coil With current in moving coil
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