Lunar International College

RESEARCH METHOD
FOR
PROJECT MANAGERS
(COURSE CODE: MSPM 615)

BY
Dr.Tnsue Gebrekidan(PHD)
Industrial Economist

E-mail: g.tnsue@yahoo.com
 Course Objective:
2

Upon successful completion of this course, you will be

able to:
understand the principles of scientific research methods and identify and
develop a research problem and discuss its relevance;
identify the combination of research skills which are relevant to a specific
research topic; and be able to develop appropriate research questions/
hypotheses;
Describe the elements of a literature review and conduct an annotated
bibliography on a specific research topic;
Develop a research proposal; and build the ability to read, understand and
critically examine journal articles and other research outputs that use
qualitative and econometric analysis.
be able to process, analyse data, make claims, write and effectively
communicate the research results as well develop and improve their ability to
articulate and present empirical results in a report or research paper format
 TRAINING METHODS
3

 Presentation
 Discussion
 Question and Answers
 Reflection
 Brainstorming
 Course Contents
4

 Chapter 1. The Fundamentals of Research

 Chapter 2. Conceptualization and Research Design
 Chapter 3. The Research Problem and Proposal Writing
 Chapter 4. Sampling Fundamentals and Hypothesis
Testing
 Chapter 5.Methods of data collection
 Chapter 6. Analysis and Interpretation of Data (using
SPSS/Smart PLS /Nvivo/STATA or any other relevant
software)
 Chapter 7.Data Interpretation and Writing Scientific
Research Report
 Assessment
5

 Developing proposal 30%

 Article review (individual) 20%
 Final examination 50%
 Reading Materials
1. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Quantitative, Qualitative and
Mixed Method Research Design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2. William G.Zikmund; “Business Research Methods”,
Dryden Press, New York, 1994
6

 Please excuse me if you have heard this African proverb too

many times before, but I felt it was particularly appropriate
given the importance of this address. It goes something like
this.....

 "Every morning in Africa, a gazelle wakes up. It knows it

must run faster than the fastest lion or it will be killed.
Every morning a lion wakes up. It knows it must outrun the
slowest gazelle or it will starve to death. It does not matter
whether you are a lion or a gazelle. When the sun comes up,
you better start running.... and fast!!".
7
8
 Chapter 1: The Fundamentals of Research
9

 What is Research?
Re Search
Again Find, examine,
Test, Prove etc

Therefore, the word Research describes a careful, systematic,

patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Research is diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a
subject in order to discover facts or principles (American College
Dictionary, 1964).
 Meaning of Research
10

 Research is……
Knowledge acquisition gained
through reasoning
through intuition
but most importantly through the use of
appropriate methods
 Meaning of Research
11

 Science is an enterprise dedicated to "finding out" no matter what you

want to find out.
 Suppose, for example, that you want to find out whether Abay
automobile is a good car for you. You could buy one and find out that
way. You could talk to Abay automobile owners, or talk to people who
considered buying one but didn't buy any. You could read newspapers
or consumer magazines evaluating Abay automobile.
 The same situation occurs in scientific inquiry. That is, scientific
inquiry comes down into making observations and interpreting what
you have observed. Before you can observe and analyze, however,
you need a plan. You need to determine what you are going to
observe and analyze, why and how.
 Meaning of Research
12

 Research in common parlance refers to a search for

knowledge.
 One can also define research as a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
 In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
 Dictionary: “a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
 Redman and Mory: a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.”
 Scientific research follows a set of protocols and established
structures.
 Philosophy of Research
13

 ‘Research philosophy’ is an over-arching term

relating to the development of knowledge and the
nature of that knowledge’ (Saunders et al, 2009)
 Refers to the progress of scientific practice based
on people’s philosophies and assumptions about
the world and the nature of knowledge
 A paradigm is ‘a basic set of beliefs’ that guide
action. Paradigms offer a framework comprising
an accepted set of theories, methods, and ways of
defining data
 Philosophy of Research….

 All research is based on assumptions

about how the world is perceived
about how we can best come to understand it.
 Nobody really knows how we can best understand the
world
 Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of
years,
 For us, as researchers, need to consider how we know
about the world around us. What is our philosophical
approach to knowledge?
15

Basic Concept of Public Financial Management

 Ontology: ways of
constructing reality, “how
things really are” and
“how things really work”..
Denzin and Lincoln,
(1998; 201)
Ontology

Methodology: What
tools do we use to
know that reality?
Philosophy of Research
Axiology
Epistemology:
different forms of
knowledge of that
Epistemology reality, what nature
of relationship
exists between the
inquirer and the
inquired? How do
we know?
 Philosophy of Research….
17

 These beliefs, along with the

researcher’s disciplinary focus and
past experiences, influence his or her
philosophical approach to research;
 Different worldviews / schools of
thought --knowledge claims are
1. Postpostivism,
2. constructivism, and
3. pragmatism.
 Philosophy of Research….
18

 Positivism: is a philosophy used by the natural sciences

 The researcher = an objective analyst of the external world; the
end product of the research are law-like generalizations
 Makes detached interpretations about the data that have been
collected in an objective manner
 the researcher is independent of the subject of the research:
 the researcher does not affect the subject of the research
 the researcher is not affected by the subject of the research
 Focus on
 highly structured methodology and methods (e.g.,
questionnaires) to facilitate replication
 observations can be quantified; this permits statistical analysis
 Philosophy of Research….
19

Key assumption of the postpositivism

A) knowledge is tentative – absolute truth can
never be found.
 Thus, evidence established in research is
always imperfect and fallible/not true.
 It is for this reason that researchers state
that they do not prove a hypothesis; instead
they indicate a failure to reject the
hypothesis.
 Philosophy of Research….
20

B) research is the process of making claims and

then refining or abandoning some of them for
other claims more strongly warranted.
2. Social constructivist worldview
 Social constructivism (often combined with
interpretivism) -an approach to qualitative
research.
 Interpretivism provides an understanding of
social reality that is based on the subjective
interpretation.
 Philosophy of Research….
21

 It does not provide a hard and fast

explanation from which causal relationships
can be identified and predictions made.
 The goal of the research is to rely as much as
possible on the participants’ views of the
situation being studied.
 The participants can construct the meanings
of a situation being studied through
discussions or interactions with other persons.
 Philosophy of Research….
22

 Constructivist researchers focus on the specific

contexts in which people live and work in order to
understand the historical and cultural settings of the
participants.
 The researchers’ intent is to make sense of (or
interpret) the meanings others have about the world.
 Rather than starting with a theory (as in post-
postivism), inquirers generate or inductively develop a
theory or pattern of meaning.
 Is based on the assumption that the researcher
cannot be detached from the subjects being studied.
 Philosophy of Research….
23

Assumptions in constructivism include:

1. meanings are constructed by human beings as
they engage with the world they are
interpreting.
• Qualitative researchers tend to use open-
ended questions so that the participants can
share their views;
2. humans engage with their world and make
sense of it based on their historical and
social perspectives.
 Philosophy of Research….
24

 Thus, qualitative researchers seek to

understand the context or setting of
the participants through visiting this
context and gathering information
personally.

3. the basic generations of meaning is

always social, arising in and out of
interaction with a human community.
 Philosophy of Research….
25

3. The pragmatic worldview

 Instead of focusing on a particular approach
(one extreme) researchers emphasize the
research problem and use all approaches
available to understand the problem.
 Pragmatism is not committed to any one
system of philosophy and reality.
 A pragmatist freely chooses the approaches
that best meet the needs and purposes of the
research.
 Philosophy of Research….
26

 Pragmatism: it is about to answer the

question: “do you have to adopt one
position”?
 Pragmatism argues that the most
important determinant of the
epistemology, ontology and axiology you
adopt is the research question – one may
be more appropriate than the other for
answering particular questions.
 Philosophy of Research….
27

 Pragmatism is apparent in mixed methods

research where the researcher draws
from both quantitative and qualitative
assumptions.
 Mixed methods researchers look to many
approaches for collecting and analysing
data rather than subscribing to only one
way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative).
 Philosophy of Research….
28

 Therefore, researchers not only select the assumptions

about the nature of reality but also the strategies of
inquiry;
 The philosophical assumptions lead to the strategies;
 Strategies of inquiry are :
 qualitative,
 quantitative and
 mixed methods designs or models that
provide specific direction for procedures
in a research design.
 Ethics in Research
29

 “The term ‘ethics’ usually refers to the moral

principle and guiding conduct, which are held by a
group or even a profession” (Wellington, 2015)
 Research ethics provide a guideline or set of
principles that support researchers in conducting
research so that it is done justly and without harming
anyone in the process.
 Every step of the research project, from formulating
your research question to publication, needs to be
informed by ethics to ensure integrity of the project.
 Ethics in Research…
30

 Some areas of research ethics:

 Research misconduct (falsification, fabrication and
plagiarism)
 Collaboration issues (authorship, data ownership and
management)
 Peer review
 Conflicts of interest or obligation
 Complicity and funding sources
 Animal subject research
 Human subject research
 Research method vs research methodology
31

 Research method: the methods during which define

the primary goal and helps to determine the topic or
issue with deeper understanding via qualitative and
quantitative evaluation processes.
 research methodology: an accurate theoretical and
systematic analysis of the strategies employed to the
fixed topic talked about all through this system.
 Research process

Formulating a research problem and framing the research topic

Exploration/Literature review
not a one time excercise
Review of Literature is

Formulation of hypothesis (Optional)

Research design

Data collection

Data analysis

Report writing
Cont'…
“The formulation of the
problem is often more
essential than its solution.”
Albert Einstein
 When does a research problem exist?
 Research problem exists if the following conditions
are met.
 Some difficulty problem facing by an individual or
group or institution etc
 Need to attain objectives
 Availability of alternative means (or courses of
action) for obtaining the objectives one wishes to
attain.
 Some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard
to the selection of alternatives.

07/02/2021 LIC 34
Sources of a research problem

Individuals, organizations,
People groups, communities etc

Issues, situations, needs,

Problem profiles, etc

Contents, structure, outcomes,

Program satisfaction, etc

07/02/2021 35
Selecting the problem
 As a researcher, note that
◦ Topic which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
◦ The topic selected for research needs
familiarity and feasibility so that the related
research material or sources of research are
within one’s reach.

07/02/2021 36
Cont'…
◦ Controversial subject should not become the
choice of an average researcher.
◦ Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
◦ Take into account the importance of the subject,
the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, time factor

07/02/2021 37
Cont'…
1. Identify the problem in a general way.

2. Identify and select a narrow problem within the

broad topic.

3. Raise questions to be asked.

4. Formulate objectives

07/02/2021 38
Cont'…
1. Identify a broad field/area that faces
problem

Human
Resource
Management

07/02/2021 39
Cont'…
2. Divide the broad area or field into
sub-divisions
Selection Motivation
Recruitment

Human Resource Promotion

Management
Placement
and Performance
induction Training and appraisal
Development
07/02/2021 40
 Cont'…
3. Select the one that interests you the most

Selection Motivation
Recruitment

Human Resource Promotion

Management
Placement
and Performance
induction Training and appraisal
Development
07/02/2021 41
 Cont'…
4. Raise research questions
Assessment on Promotion Practices in Public
Institutions
 What is the promotion process followed in public
institutions?

 What are the laws guiding promotion process of public

servants?

 How is promotion performed in public institutions?

07/02/2021 42
 Exercise 1

Sit in groups and choose a topic

of your interest?
Write the title of the research

07/02/2021 43
Research objectives
 Research objectives determines your destination
 Have a path to walk on throughout your thesis work.
 It is split into two

◦ General objectives – statement that tells the overall

aim of undertaking a given topic. In most of the cases,
it is your topic written in the form of an objective
◦ Specific objectives – These emanate from the general
objectives and provides sub-ways of attaining the
above mentioned general objectives. These should be
very SMART.

07/02/2021 44
Research objectives… con’d
◦ Let the specific objectives match the research
questions horizontally
◦ The phrases you use should match the research
type/approach you intend to adopt. For example,
 For descriptive research, you may use “To
describe”, “To assess”, “To portray”, “To
compare”, etc.
 For explanatory research: “To explain the effect
of X on Y”; to analyze the cause-and-effect
relationship between ….”, etc
 Research objectives… con’d
5. Set research objectives
General objective:
 To evaluate promotion patterns in public institutions
Specific objectives:
 To point out procedures followed to promote public
servants
 To evaluate laws guiding promotion in public
institutions
 To examine how promotion is done practically

07/02/2021 46
 Research objectives… con’d
6. Check & double check your research objectives
 How much work is involved?
 Do I have time?
 Do I have the resources?
 Do I have the technical expertise?
 Am I really interested?
 Do I agree with the objectives?

07/02/2021 47
Title Selection
Research topic must be;
 Interesting – keeps the researcher interested in it
throughout the research process
 Researchable – can be investigated through the
collection and analysis of data
 Significant – contributes to the improvement and
understanding of educational theory and practice
 Manageable – fits the level of researcher’s level
of research skills, needed resources, and time
restrictions
 Ethical – does not embarrass or harm participants
07/02/2021 48
 Checklist for a good research topic:
 Is the topic something in which you are really interested?
• Does the topic have a clear link to theory?
• Is the subject familiar and feasible to you?
• Do you have, or can you develop, the necessary research
skills to undertake the topic?
• Is your topic societal relevant?
• Is the subject overdone? (Avoid it)/ it should be orginal
• Is the subject controversial? (Avoid it)
• Is the problems too narrow or too vague/broad? (balance)
• Can you meet the cost and time requirements?
• Can you gain accessibility of necessary cooperation, etc.

07/02/2021 49
 Exercise 2
Write a problem statement for
your research topic
Reframe your topic based on the
title selection criteria.
Based on your research topic,
write at least three to five specific
objectives
07/02/2021 50
 Research Hypothesis Formulation

 When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, it is called

hypothesis. It is a tentative proposition that will be verified or
falsified through empirical testing.
 Formulation of research hypothesis is not arbitrary. It is rather
based on theory or previous research findings.
 It plays the role of guiding the direction of the study, hence should
be carefully designed.
 It suggests the appropriate research design to adopt and provides
a framework for organizing the conclusion.
51
 Research Hypothesis Formulation…con’d
52

There are two types of hypothesis: Descriptive and Relational

Hypothesis
• Descriptive Hypothesis: propositions that typically state the
existence, size, form or distribution of some variables. E.g.
for the research question “What is the unemployment rate in
Ethiopia?” the hypothesis could be “The current unemployment
rate in Ethiopia exceeds 20%.”
• Relational Hypothesis: statements that describe (causal)
relationship between two variables.
– Increasing frequency of product advertisement is expected to
increase sales volume.
– An increase in family income is expected to lead to higher
percentage of saving
 Research Hypothesis Formulation…con’d

 Toset up a criteria for comparing the results of this

study, two types of hypotheses namely null
hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1)
◦ H0: Electronic data processing(EDP) system in
banks is not essential
◦ H1 : EDP system in banks is essential
Significance of the study
 Significanceof the study is also called justification or
importance of the study.
 State why you feel the study is important. This is
usually stated in terms of identifying people or
institution that will benefit from it and how they will
benefit.

 This is where you convince scholars that their research

is worth undertaking or studying.

07/02/2021 LIC 54
Scope of the study
 Specifies the boundaries of their research.
 Itcovers
◦ Geographical scope which defines the location of
the study;
◦ Theoretical scope by defining issues to be covered;
and
◦ Time scope stating the period coverage of the
research

07/02/2021 LIC 55
Limitation
 Limitation, by definition, are factors affecting
research findings substantially and lies beyond the
control of the researcher.

 It could be concerned to chosen research method,

research technique, sampling method, sampling size,
etc

07/02/2021 LIC 56
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
57

Generally, research can be classified on the basis

of the following traits: Outcome of the research,
time it takes, purpose, required data, setting, and
required logical approach.
1. On the basis of the outcomes of research
Whether the research tries to solve a particular
problem or makes a general contribution to the
knowledge, research can be classified as fundamental
or applied.
 Types of research (continued...)
58

A. Fundamental research (academic)

Fundamental research also known as pure research or
basic research is concerned with the development of
theoretical frame for a particular phenomenon for which
so far no generalized principles are available.
It aims at solving puzzling problems or questions of a
theoretical nature that have little direct impact on
activities, performance or policy decisions. This type of
research is aimed at generalizations and formulation of a
theory and directed towards finding information that has a
broad base of applications.
 Types of research (continued...)
59

Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about

the human world.
It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that
explain how this world operates, what makes things
happen, and why social relations are operating a certain
way .
It is the source of most new scientific ideas and
ways of thinking about the world.
It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory;
however, explanatory research is the most common.
 Types of research (continued...)
60

B. Applied research
It aims at finding solutions for the problems that
demand immediate solution or permanent answers.
The most important aim of applied research is to
find out a solution for some pressing practical
problems or guiding a specific decision.
In all private/public sector organizations, the
managers are often demanded to find solutions to
various problems so as to make appropriate decisions.
 Types of research (continued...)
61

Applied researchers try to solve specific policy

problems or help practitioners accomplish tasks.
Theory is less central to them than seeking a
solution on a specific problem for a limited
setting.
Applied research is frequently a descriptive
research, and its main strength is its immediate
practical use. It is conducted when decision
must be made about a specific real-life problem.
 Types of research (continued...)
62

Types of Applied Research: Practitioners use several types of

applied research. Some of the major ones are:
1. Action research:
o It is a research that treats knowledge as a form of power
and abolishes the line between research and social action.
o It assumes that knowledge develops from experience,
particularly the experience of social-political action.
o They also assume that ordinary people can become aware
of conditions and learn to take actions that can bring
about improvement.
 Types of research (continued...)
63

2. Impact Assessment Research

Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences
of a planned change.
Such an assessment is used for planning and
making choices among alternative policies
 to make an impact assessment on the effect of Covid19
vaccine;
 to determine changes in city plan of Addis Ababa as a
result of the major new highways and railways built.
 Types of research (continued...)
64

3. Evaluation Research (formative or summative)

o It is the process of establishing value
judgment based on evidence about the
achievement of the goals of a program.
o Evaluation research measures the effectiveness
of a program, policy, or way of doing
something. “Did the program work?” “Did it
achieve its objectives?”
 Types of research (continued...)
65

On the basis of purpose

On the basis of the underlying reason for which it is
conducted, research can be exploratory, descriptive,
explanatory/analytical or predictive.
A. Exploratory research/preliminary research
It is conducted with a view to clarify and define the
existence and nature of a problem. It could be single time
exercise or series of studies carried out by the researcher
to understand the depth and width of the problem. It
provides the basic information relating to the subject matter
of the study .
 Types of research (continued...)
66

Exploratory studies are meant to provide quantitative or

qualitative or combined scenarios. In these studies, three inter-
related activities such as
a. Diagnosing a situation
b. Scanning the alternatives and
c. Discovering new ideas exist.
It focuses on the development of hypotheses rather than
their testing. Exploratory research has the goal of
formulating problems more precisely, clarifying concepts,
gathering explanations, gaining insight, eliminating
impractical ideas, and forming hypotheses.
 Types of research (continued...)
67
 Types of research (continued...)
68
 Types of research (continued...)
69
 Types of research (continued...)
70
 Types of research (continued...)
71
 Types of research (continued...)
72

D. Predictive research
o It goes explaining why and how things happened.
o It has its roots in the ability to “Predict” what might happen.
These analytics are about understanding the future
o It predicts (forecast) the possibility /probability of happening in
similar situation in the future.
o It provides companies with actionable insights based on data,
and provides estimates about the likelihood of a future outcome.
Since, there is no statistical algorithm which can “predict” the
future with 100% certainty, it is just based on probabilities.
 Types of research (continued...)
73

On the basis of data of research (research approach)

On the basis of data used in the research process:
A. Quantitative research
It aims at measurement of a phenomenon. It is based on the
measurement of quantity/amount. It could take the form of
non-experimental (mere descriptive), experimental, Quasi-
experimental/inferential, and simulation.
B. Qualitative research
It aims at finding out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution. E.g. Attitude of
students towards the services of Admas University
 QuaN
Qua Ntitative
titativevs. QuaLLitative
vs.Qua itative
74

Quantitative Qualitative
 Types of research (continued...)
75

C. Mixed research
 It involves both aspects of quantitative and
qualitative researches, which are mixed out
of the need for triangulation, corroboration, or
expansion of the range of inquiry (depth and
breadth).
 This method requires the adoption of a clear
mixed method strategy
 Types of research (continued...)
76

4. On the basis of the setting

On the basis of the setting/environment it can be classified as:
A. Field research:
It is carried out in the field, which is common in social
science, agricultural science, history and archeology .
B. Laboratory research:
It is carried out in the laboratory, which is commonly
experimental in nature. In this case, one or more variables
are manipulated under conditions, which permit the collection
of data, which show the effects. Experiments are artificial in
the sense that the situations are created for testing purposes.
 Types of research (continued...)
77

C. Simulation research
 Such researches use models that are meant to
represent the real world, which is common in
physical science, economics and mathematics.
 An artificial environment is constructed to see
the dynamic behavior of a system or its sub-
systems. Computable General Equilibrium Model
is a specific example of simulation models
applicable to economics.
 Types of research (continued...)
78
 Types of research (continued...)
79
 Types of research (continued...)
80
 Types of research (continued...)
81

6. On the basis of logic

On this basis of the logical approach it follows, research can
take two forms: inductive or deductive.
A. Inductive
It relies on the empirical verification of a general conclusion
derivable from a finite number of observations. If an event
repeats itself enough times, then it can be concluded that the
event will continue to occur, ceteris paribus. It operates from
the specific to the general. Observation reveals patterns or
trends in a specific variable of interest and these are then used to
formulate a general theory of the nature and behavior.
 Types of research (continued...)
82
 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
What is Research Proposal?
The research proposal is a detailed plan of a study.
It is a document which shows researchers’ ideas in
an easily accessible way.
The intent of the written research proposal is to
provide a focused and scholarly presentation of a
research problem and plan.
• It is a plan of future research and an explanation of
how it will be achieved
A written document requesting both authorization
and funds to undertake a specific research project.
83
 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 The objective in writing a proposal is to
describe:
what you will do,
why it should be done,
When to do it,
how you will do it, and
what you expect will result.
 Function of the research proposal
1. A means of communication,
2. As a plan, and
3. As a contract
84
 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 Importance of the research proposal

◦ It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the

research project.

◦ It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the

researcher to follow.

◦ It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the

researcher while conducting the study.

◦ It reduces the probability of costly mistake.

85
 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A well-thought and written proposal can be judged
according to three main criteria.
◦ Is it adequate to answer the research question(s),
and achieve the study objective?
◦ Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the study?
◦ Does it provide enough detail that can allow
another investigator to do the study and arrive at
comparable results?
86
 Types Of Research Proposal
 Research proposals can be classified into student, internal
and external.
 Student research proposals

◦ range between term paper and senior essay that are least
complex to MSc thesis and PhD dissertation that are most
complex.
 Internal R/P

◦ if they target an entity or organization and are prepared by

individual or a team of researchers who are part of the
entity or organization.
 External research proposals

◦ Are either solicited or unsolicited.

◦ Solicited research proposals are when the customer asks
87
 Sections or Elements of a Research Proposal

 Section of a research proposal varies from one type of

research proposal to the other.
 There is no a hard and a fast format in scientific research
proposal writing.
 Though the format varies, the essence expressed in different
proposal remains the same.
 The major components/elements of a scientific research
proposal
1. Title
2. Summary/Abstract
3. Acknowledgement
4. Table of contents
5. Introduction/Background
6. Statement of the problem 88
Sections or Elements of a Research Proposal

7. Hypotheses/Questions

8. Objective/Aim of the study

9. Significance of the study

10. Scope of the study

11. Literature review

12. Research Methodology

13. Time plan

14. Cost budget

15. Reference

16. Appendix
89
Avoid ‘waste words’:
◦ Observations of …
◦ Studies of …
◦ Investigations of …
◦ Examinations of …
◦ A note on …

90
 Time table/Schedule
 Your schedule should include the major phases of
the project, their timetables, and the milestones
that signify completion of a phase.
 A timetable explaining how the researcher expects
to carry out the project and when each of the
important phases will be completed
 It is a plan in terms of numbers of weeks or
months and expected completion dates.
91
For example, major phases may be;
1. Exploratory interviews
2. Final research proposal
3. Questionnaire revision
4. Field interviews
5. Editing and coding
6. Data analysis
7. Report generation

 Each of these phases should have an estimated

time schedule and people assigned to the work
92
 Cost Budget
Funding will be necessary and an itemized list
of items needed to carry out the methodology is
listed in some detail.

There are items like:

Field expenses for data collection
Pay for consultants where they are necessary
Travel and all such items needed to be detailed
A sum of money for contingencies.

93
 Referencing Styles
 The term ‘reference’ refers to those consulted materials that are
actually cited in-text, that is,
◦ when your research includes paraphrased empirical and
theoretical quotations from published papers of other writers.
 On the other hand, bibliography refers to all materials consulted
for which the content of these might not have been included in the
actual text.
 To write reference and bibliography, there are a number of
referencing styles such as Harvard Style, Chicago Style, American
Psychological Association (APA) Style etcetera.
 What is plagiarism?
 Plagiarism is wrongful appropriation of others’ idea, thoughts,
expression, close imitation etc as if it were your own original
work. 94
 Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.

Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
Failure to cite landmark studies.
Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by
other researchers.
Failure to stay focused on the research question.
Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed
research.
Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of
direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a
seamless river.)
Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
Too long or too short.
Failing to follow the proper citation style.
95

Conducting Literature Review
Why conduct literature review?
– To give your readers an overview of the sources you
have explored
– Demonstrate how your research fits into the larger
field of study
– To outline the key ideas and theories that help us to
understand the research problem
– To show what is already known about the research
topic
– To show what is not known (the research gap):
unaddressed aspects, issues, factors; methodological
limitations, etc
The literature review accomplishes several purposes:

– It shares with the reader the results of other studies

that are closely related to the one being undertaken;
– It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in
the literature;
– It provides a framework for establishing the
importance of the study as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results with other findings;
A general guideline for conducting literature review

• Choose a variety of resources that relate to your

topic.
• Articles: by reading their titles and the abstract
• Books: from the library through the library computer-
based catalogue.
• Documents (e.g., those published by government,
international organizations, etc)
• Then select the relevant materials in light of your
research problem/objective(s).
• You may again have a look at the abstract of articles or
table of contents of books
• Read the introduction and conclusion part of the articles
Continued…..

• Use software such as Mendeley and EndNote to keep

a record of your references (this will be discussed
later).
• Select the most relevant information from the
references – in light of the topic/research objective.
– Skim the paper or the chapter of the book.
– Identify the relevant parts of the article or the
book chapter.
– You can highlight the important sentences or
paragraphs – use highlighter on hard copy, word
file, PDF, etc). Even PDF & MS Word software have
in-built highlighters.
Continued…..

• Critically examine the parts you have highlighted.

Look at:
– Objective, context, methodology, statistics, results, etc
– Theoretical framework, the author's purpose, etc.
– Include controversies/debatable issues when they appear.
• Organize the information obtained form the
literature review in the way that makes most sense
(in your MS word file). For example:
– Concepts, factors, relationships, dynamisms/mechanisms,
etc.
– Themes: Meaning, causes, effects, etc.
Continued…..

• Make sure the information relates to your

research question/objectives of the thesis
– Avoid information that does not relate with your
research objectives. Ask your self, why do I need
this information in my literature review section?
• Make sure you have done more than simply
summarize your sources.
– a critical assessment of those sources is necessary.
• Develop questions for further research
Continued…..
Continued…..
Continued…..
Continued…..
Research Methodology

07/02/2021 LIC 107

 Data Sources

Primary Data Secondary Data

Observation Interviewing Questionnaire Documents

Data Collection Instruments

Govt.
Non-Participant

Semi-Structured

publications
Un-structured
Participant

Structured

Collective
Earlier
Mailed

Direct
or
Researches
Census
Personal Records
07/02/2021 LIC 108
Observation
 Observation involves the collection of information by
a way of investigators’ own observation, without
interviewing the respondents.

 Sometimes, observation is divided into two types

◦ Participant observation and
◦ Non-participant observation

 Observation also can be of two types

◦ Structured observation
◦ Unstructured observation
07/02/2021 LIC 109
 Structured and unstructured observation
 Structured observation is a type of observation in
which the researcher decided in advance issues
pertaining to
◦ What should be observed?
◦ How the observations should be recorded?
◦ How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?

 Unstructured observation takes place when the

abovementioned issues are not thought in advance.

 Structured observation is considered appropriate in

descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the
observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured. 07/02/2021 LIC 110
 Participant and non-participant
observation
 This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing
or not sharing the life of the group he is observing.

 An observation is participant observation if the

observer observes by making himself a member of the
group he is observing so that he can experience what
the members of the group experience.

 An observation is non-participant if the observer

observes as a detached emissary without any attempt
on his part to experience through participation what
others feel.

07/02/2021 LIC 111

Cont'…
 But, if the observer is observing in such a manner that
his presence may be unknown to the people he is
observing, such an observation is described as
disguised observation.

07/02/2021 LIC 112

Cont'…
 Advantages of observation
◦ Overcomes language barrier.

◦ Can be carried out any time.

◦ Helps researcher to get in touch with the

information directly.

◦ More reliable technique.

07/02/2021 LIC 113

Cont'…
 Disadvantages of Observation
◦ Misinterpretation of what is observed.

◦ More expensive way of collecting information than

the questionnaires.

◦ Time consuming.

◦ Cannot be applied to many aspects of social life.

For instance, one cannot observe attitude and
beliefs.

07/02/2021 LIC 114

Interview Method
 Interview involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.

 An interview is a conversation between two people

(the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions
are asked by the interviewer to obtain information
from the interviewee.

 Thismethod can be used through personal interviews

and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

07/02/2021 LIC 115

Personal interview
 Personal interview method is a type of interview
which requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact
to the other person or persons.

 This sort of interview may be in the form of direct

personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation.

 In the case of direct personal investigation, the

interviewer has to collect the information
personally from the sources concerned.
07/02/2021 LIC 116
Cont'…
 But in certain cases it may not be possible or
worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned
or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the
direct personal investigation technique may not be
used.

 In such cases, an indirect oral examination can be

conducted under which the interviewer has to
cross-examine other persons who are
supposed to have knowledge about the problem
under investigation and the information obtained is
recorded.
07/02/2021 LIC 117
Types of personal interviews
 Structured interview is the one in which there is a
set of predetermined questions.

 The interviewer in a structured interview follows a

rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed.

 Unstructured interview is a method of interview

where there is flexibility in the approach to
questioning. It does not follow a system of
pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information.
07/02/2021 LIC 118
Cont'…
 In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit
certain questions if the situation so requires.

07/02/2021 LIC 119

Telephone interview
 Telephone interview involves contacting the
respondents on telephone.
 It plays an important role when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
Advantages of Interview
◦ Interview is quite flexible.
◦ Adaptable and can be used in many people.
◦ Information can be obtained in a detail and well-
explained.

07/02/2021 LIC 120

Cont'd…
 Disadvantages of Interview
◦ Interviewees may feel shy or become discomfort
about the question.
◦ Sometimes questions may be wrong and may
take a lot of time from the respondent to give
respond.
◦ Untrained interviewers may be one of the major
weaknesses or demerits of the interview.

07/02/2021 LIC 121

 Cont'd…
Advantages of telephone interview:
• Relatively cheap and quick (as long as the
respondent picks and is willing to take the
interview)
• Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or
organizations.
• Wide geographic coverage
• No waiting and spontaneous response
• Help can be given to the respondent
• Can tape answers
Cont'd…
Disadvantages of telephone interview:
• Questionnaire required
• Not everyone has a telephone.
• Repeat calls are inevitable
• Straightforward questions are required to ask (canno
address complex issues)
• Respondent has little time to think on an issue
• Good telephone manner is required
Focus Group Discussion

A focus group could be defined as a group of

interacting individuals having some common
interest or characteristics, brought together by
a researcher, who uses the group and its
interaction as a way to gain information about
a specific or focused issue
Con’d…
Advantages of FGD method:
 People naturally interact and are influenced by others
( high validity).
 Provide data more quickly and at lower cost than if
individuals are interviewed on one-to-one basis.
 Generally requires less preparation and is comparatively
easy to conduct.
 Researcher can interact directly with respondents ( allows
clarification, follow-up questions, probing)
 Data uses respondents’ own words: can obtain deeper
levels of meaning, make important connections
 Very flexible; can be used with wide range or topics,
individuals, and settings
Con’d….
Disadvantages of FGD method:
 Researcher have less control over group; less able to control
what information will be produced.
 Data analysis is more difficult (narrative, textual).
 Small sample size & sampling method severely limit ability
to generalize to larger populations.
 Requires carefully trained interviewer who is knowledgeable
about group dynamics.
 Researcher Bias: He/she may provide clues about what types
of responses are desirable.
 Respondent bias: Results may be biased by presence of a
very dominant or opinionated member; more reserved
members may be hesitant to talk.
Questionnaire
Advantages of questionnaire method:
 Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for
interviewing or a telephone survey
 Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed
 Can cover a large number of people or organizations
 Wide geographic coverage.
 Relatively cheap and no prior arrangements are needed.
 Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
 Respondent can consider responses.
 Possible anonymity of respondent.
 No interviewer bias.
Questionnaire…
Disadvantages of questionnaire method:
Susceptible to design problems.
Questions have to be relatively simple.
Historically low response rate.
Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned
Require a return deadline.
Several reminders may be required
Assumes no literacy problems.
No control over who completes it
Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
Steps to design a questionnaire:
1. Write out the primary and secondary aims of
your study.
2. Write out concepts/information to be collected
that relates to these aims.
3. Review the current literature to identify
already validated questionnaires that measure
your specific area of interest.
4. Compose a draft of your questionnaire.
5. Revise the draft.
6. Assemble the final questionnaire.
07/02/2021 LIC 129
Questionnaire General Format

Self-administered (by mail or

personal contact)
In person (face-to-face)
Telephone interviews
 Questions Context
Standardize the interviewer
Standardize the response format
Ask questions in a social, cultural,
and economic context
Keep confidentiality and voluntary
participation
Include a letter of introduction or
presentation
 Questions Format
Open ended questions - more
information but difficult to
codify, enter, and analyze
Closed ended questions - less
information but easy to codify,
enter, and analyze
 How To Obtain Valid Information

Avoid two-edged questions

Avoid negative questions
Adopt/adapt questions used
successfully in other questionnaires
Secondary Data
Sources of Secondary data:
Federal/provincial/state governments
Statistics agencies and Trade association
General business publications, Annual reports,
Magazine and newspaper articles
Academic publications, Library sources
Computerized bibliographies and syndicated services
Internal records and reports
Cont’d…
Advantages of Secondary data:
It often allows researcher to extend the scope of your
study
It saves time and cost
It usually provides a larger database.
In many small research projects, it is impossible to
consider taking a national sample because of the costs
involved.
cont’d….
Disadvantage of secondary data:
Researcher has less control over how the data was
collected.
There may be biases in the data, but not known.
Data may not exactly fit your research questions.
Data may be obsolete; can distort research results
Can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.
Sample design
Sample defined:
A sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger
population.
A larger population could be anything out
which sample is taken.
A complete group of entities sharing some
common set of characteristics is population.

07/02/2021 LIC 137

Why sample?
 Saves Cost, Labor, and Time

 Quality Management/supervision

 Accurate and Reliable Results

 Sampling may be the Only Way

◦ For example, consider the case of electric bulbs. In
testing the life of bulbs, if we were to burn every
bulb produced, there would be none left to sell. This
is destructive sampling.
07/02/2021 LIC 138
Sampling frame
A sampling frame is the list of elements from which
the sample may be drawn. A simple example could be
listing of all University students meeting the criteria
of target population.
 Example; Registrar in a university, payroll in
organizations, telephone directory,
 Sampling frame is useful in providing a listing of each
elements in the population
 A sampling frame is also called the working
population because it provides the list that can be
worked with operationally.
 This is possible only for finite population.

07/02/2021 LIC 139

 Sampling unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements
considered for selection in some stage of sampling.

 Sampling may be done in single stage or in multiple

stages.
◦ Single-stage sample, the sampling units are the
same as the elements.

◦ In more complex samples, however, different

levels of sampling units may be employed – the
case of clustering or stratified techniques
07/02/2021 LIC 140
Parameter
A parameter is the summary description of a
given variable in a population.
◦ The mean income of all families in a city and
the age distribution of the city’s population are
parameters.
 More precisely, parameters is the characteristics
of a POPULATION

07/02/2021 LIC 141

Statistic
A statistic is the summary description of a given
variable in a survey sample.
◦ Thus the mean income computed from the
survey sample and the age distribution of that
sample are statistics.

 Like the parameters, statistic stands for

characteristics of a SAMPLE.

07/02/2021 LIC 142

Sampling…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION
The Sample is the Subset of the Population

Sample
Population
Determining Sample Design
In sampling design, pay attention to:
a) Type of universe:- finite or infinite universe
b) Sampling unit:- geographical (state, district, village,
etc.), or a construction unit (house, flat, etc.), or a
social unit (family, club, school, etc.), or it may be an
individual.
c) Source list (sampling frame): is the frame from which
sample is to be drawn.
Determining Sample Design...
d) Size of sample: Sample size is the determination of the
number of elements to be selected from a population to
serve as representatives. It can be done in two ways:
Rule of Thumb and Using Formula
e) Parameters of interest: must consider the question of the
specific population parameters (e.g., mean, median,
mode) .
f) Budgetary constraint: This may even lead to the use of a
non-probability sample.
g) Sampling procedure: for a given sample size and for a
given cost, it should lead to smaller sampling error.
Determining Sample Design...
Systematic Bias & Sampling Errors:
A. Systematic bias: errors in the sampling procedures,
cannot be addressed by increasing sample size.
Sources: 
•Inappropriate sampling frame:
•Defective measuring device;
•Non-respondents:
•Indeterminancy principle: individuals act differently when
kept under observation.
•Natural bias in the reporting of data: people tend to give
what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than revealing
their true feelings. E.g., understate or overstate income.
 Determining Sample Design...
B. Sampling errors:
•Related to the sampling procedure and size
•Decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, & in
case of homogeneous population.
•But increasing the size increases the cost & may enhance
the systematic bias.
•Researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a
relatively small sampling error & helps to control the
systematic bias in a better way.
 Determining Sample Design
Characteristics of a good sampling design:
•Must result in a truly representative sample.
•The results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
•Must result in a small sampling error.
•Must be viable in the context of:
•Funds available for the research study and
•Practicality to pick the selected elements of the
sample.
•Must enable controlling systematic bias in a better way.
 Sampling Techniques

Probability Non-probability
Sampling Sampling

Simple Systematic Stratified

Cluster
Random Random Random
Sampling
Sampling Sampling Sampling

Convenience Snowball Quota

sampling sampling sampling

07/02/2021 LIC 150

Determining Sample Design...
Random/Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling:
• Every member of the population has the same chance o
being included in the sample.
• Techniques: Lottery method, Random numbers.
2. Systematic Random Sampling:
• Used to select, say, every 20th name on a list, every 12th
house on one side of a street, every 50th piece of item
coming off a production line, and so on.
•Requires a source list
• The first item can be selected using simple Random
Sampling
Determining Sample Design...
3. Stratified Random Sampling:
• Involves dividing the population into relatively
homogeneous groups, called strata,
• Example:
• Stratifying households by income level - low
income HHs; middle income HHs; high income
HHs
• Stratifying by gender, education level, etc
• Then, to select individuals from each strata, we can
use simple or systematic random sampling techniques.
Determining Sample Design...
4. Cluster Sampling (Multi-Stage Sampling)
The total population is divided into relatively small
subdivisions, called clusters,
Some of these clusters are randomly selected using
simple or systematic random sampling.
One possibility is to use all the elements in the
selected (sample) clusters.
If elements within the sample clusters give similar
results, we take a random sample of elements from
each of the selected clusters using simple or systematic
random sampling techniques.
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 Determining Sample Design...
Non-random Sampling Techniques
1. Convenience, Haphazard or Accidental sampling
•members of the population are chosen based on their
relative ease of access) – selection could be biased.
2. Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling
•The researcher chooses the sample based on who
he/she thinks would be appropriate for the study
•This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area
being researched.
•can be subject to bias and error.
Determining Sample Design...

3. Case study (selection of a case or

multiple cases) - The research is limited
to one group, often with a similar
characteristic or of small size.
4. Deviant Case - Get cases that
substantially differ from the dominant
pattern (a special type of purposive
sample).
Determining Sample Design...

5. Ad hoc quotas - A quota is established and

researchers are free to choose any respondent
they wish
6. Snow-ball sampling: one respondent leads to
others; useful when the researcher does not
know where the potential respondents could be
found; their number is unknown and no source
list.
 Census and sampling survey
A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is
known as a Census.
 All items in any field of inquiry is a population or universe.
 Under census, the assumption is that no element is left and highest
accuracy is obtained.
 Alternatively,sample respondents can be selected from
the population.
 The respondents selected should be as representative of
the total population as possible.
 The selected respondents constitute what is technically
called a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called
‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as
‘sample survey’.
07/02/2021 LIC 158
 The Survey Method
A Survey:
Is detailed and quantified description of a
population (i.e., a set of people, organizations,
institutions, countries, etc)
Involves systematic collection of data by
interview, questionnaire or observation
methods,
Requires precise samples (if it is not a census)
and standardization of instruments.
Survey Method…
Characteristics of Survey Methods
Involves a team of enumerators + supervisors
Large number of observation/data can be collected
within a certain period of time from a relatively large
number of respondents.
The sample can be spread over a wide area - making
the study some what more generalizable
the principal researcher need not spend too much
time in the field
 Survey Method…
Surveys require respondents to answer questions
about their:
◦ Opinions, attitudes, or preferences, and
◦ Socio demographic characteristics.
It is essentially cross-sectional – conducted during a
particular point in time.
It is not concerned with the characteristics of the
individual respondents per se but with that of the
target group (population) as a whole.
 Survey Method…
It is conducted based on:
◦ Clearly defined research problem/questions
◦ Definite research objectives
◦ Well defined concepts, factors, variables, etc
It requires:
◦ Careful design of sampling methods, data collection
instruments;
◦ Careful planning of the data collection process/procedure
before hand.
◦ Careful analysis and interpretation of the data gathered.
◦ Logical and skilful reporting of the findings.
 Survey Method…
Types of Survey Studies based on 3 criteria:
(a) Nature of variables:
i) Status survey – simply reports status, or
ii) Survey research – involves more research objective
than simply reporting status .
(b) Group Measured:
(i) Sample (sample survey), or
(ii) Population (census)
(c) Based on the nature enquiry:
(iii)Descriptive survey, or
(iv)Explanatory/analytical survey
(v) Mixed – descriptive and analytical
Case Studies
Tend to be much more specific in focus than surveys
Can explore many themes & subjects, from a much more
focused range of people, organizations or contexts
Can explore subjects & issues where relationships may
be ambiguous or uncertain (i.e., exploratory)
Can also investigate causal relationships (i.e.,
explanatory)
Often (but not always) tend to be inductive rather than
deductive in character.
Not longitudinal study; focuses on contemporary events
 Case Studies…
Itgives a detailed knowledge about the phenomena
and not able to generalize beyond the knowledge.
Does not require control of behavioral events
Prediction cannot be made; no statistical inferences
can be drawn from the exploration of a phenomenon
Should be used when addressing ‘how’ and/or ‘why’
questions
Can be single case study (one case) or multiple case
study (two or more cases).
◦ One case- one person/household/school/event, etc
◦ Multiple case- multiple persons/households/schools/ events
 Case Studies…
Sources of data in case-study:
Documentation – policy/proclamation, specific
report of organizations, etc
Archival records – e.g., from national archives
Interviews – face-to-face, telephone, etc
Direct observations – participant/non-participant
Focus group discussions
Physical artifacts – e.g., costumes, household
utensils, hunting/production tools, etc
 Case Studies…
The multiple case-study process: Steps
1. Develop a theoretical stance - A provisional
hypothesis or set of questions is developed.
2. Select multiple cases – depending on the unit of
analysis (e.g., persons, organizations, schools)
3. Design and pilot research tools, protocols and field
procedures
4. Conduct the multiple case studies (i.e., case 1, case 2,
case 3, …)
5. Draw cross-case conclusions (synthesize/combine)
and develop theories/hypothesis (hypotheses)
6. Write the case study report
 Case Studies…
Guidelines for Case Studies: the case study must
Be significant: There must be a convincing reason for selecting
the case/cases from among similar other cases.
Be complete: the one case/cases must provide a
complete (not partial) view of the phenomenon
Display sufficient evidence: all evidence required to
describe/analyze the phenomenon must be obtained
from the selected case/cases. Otherwise:
◦ Collect additional evidence from the selected case/cases
◦ Add more cases into the study to provide the missing evidence
Be written in an engaging way (e.g. for policy
development or for further research such as surveys)
Measurement and scaling concepts
 Measurement can be qualitative or quantitative.
◦ Qualitative measurement focuses on
interpretation and analysis findings textually.
◦ Quantitative measurement is numerical.
Analysing quantitative data
Whilst measuring quantitative data, measurements
can be nominal, ordinal and interval and ratio
levels of measurement.

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A) Nominal scales
 Nominal scales classifies elements into two or more
categories.
 In simple terms, it is a type of data which reflects
classification characteristics, but do not indicate any
mathematical or qualitative differences.
 When the data is nominal, it is meaningless to find
mean, standard deviations, correlation coefficients,
etc.
 Example: Gender, Political Party, Nationality,
Department, e.t.c

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Example
 Grouping into categories based upon political party
preference (EPRDF, PP, Others) or upon sex (Male or
Female) or upon religion (Muslim, Orthodox,
Protestant, Catholic, etc).

 Inthe political party preference system EPRDF might

be assigned the number "1", PP "2", and Others "3",
while in the latter females might be assigned the
number "1" and males "2".

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Cont'…

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b) Ordinal Scales
 Ordinal scale possesses the property of magnitude.
 It classifies scores in the algebra of inequalities (a <
b < c) (I.e a is not equal to “b” and b is not equal
to “a” etc)
 Ordering, ranking, or rank ordering is involved.
Examples: the ranking of people for height, weight,
education, job category, etc.
 In ordinal scales, the numbers attached to values
might indicate a ranking or ordering of the values.
 Can apply the median, rank order, correlations and
percentile.
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c) Interval Scales
 Establishes an equal unit in the scale. The difference
between any two scores is equal.
 Suitable to calculate arithmetic mean and standard
deviations.
 The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference
between each value is the same.  For example, the
difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable
10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70
degrees.  
 Other examples: five liker scale, exam results,
attitudinal results and most behavioral concepts
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Examples

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D. Ratio Scales
The highest level of measurement scales.
It is the most powerful of the other
measurement scales
Example
◦ Salary, financial performance, annual budget,

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