BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
CALCULATIONS

By Saveena Solanki
 Learning Outcomes
• To learn conventions and definitions which form the backbone of
engineering analysis

• To know the nature of physical variables, dimensions and units

• Get to understand dimensionality and be able to convert

units with ease

• How physical and chemical processes are translated

into mathematics
Physical Variables, Dimensions and Units

Calculations used in bioprocess engineering require a systematic approach with well-defined methods and rules

The first step in quantitative analysis of systems is to express the system properties using mathematical language
 1.1 Physical Variables

• A physical property of a body or substance that can be

quantified by measurement e.g. length, velocity, viscosity etc.

• Seven out of all physical variables are accepted

internationally as basis for measurement

• The base quantities are called dimensions, from which the

dimensions of other physical variables are derived

e.g. velocity is LT-1 , force is LMT-2 etc.

 Base quantities
Base quantity Dimensional Base SI unit Unit symbol American Eng.
symbol
Length L metre m foot (ft)
Mass M kilogram kg pound mass (lbm)
Time T second s second
Electric current I ampere A ampere
Temperature Θ kelvin K Rankine (R)
Amount of substance N gram-mole gmol (mol) lbm-mole (lbmmol)
Luminous intensity J candela cd candela
Supplementary fundamental units
Plane angle - radian rad
Solid angle - steradian sr
 1.1.1 Substantial variables (1)

• Examples of substantial variables are mass, length, volume,

viscosity, temperature etc.

• Expression of the magnitude of substantial variables requires

a precise physical standard against which measurement is
made

• These standards are called units

 1.1.1 Substantial variables (2)

• The magnitude of substantial variables are in two parts:

the number and the unit used for measurement

• The values of two or more substantial variables may be added

or subtracted only if their units are the same

• the values and units of any substantial variables can

be combined by multiplication or division
 Dimensional quantities (1)
Derived quantity Dimension SI
Acceleration unit
Angular velocity LT
T-1
-2 rads
ms-2 -1
Area L2 m2
Concentration L-3N moldm-3
Conductance (electric) L-2M-1T3I2
m-2kg-1s3A2 (Siemens)
Density L-3M
kgm-3
Energy L2MT-2
Nm or J (Joule)
Enthalpy L2MT-2
J
Entropy L2MT-2θ-1
J/K
Force LMT-2 m·kg·s-2 or N (Newton)
Fouling factor M T-3θ-1
Wm-2 K-I
Frequency T-1 s-1 or Hz (Hertz)
Half life T s
Heat L2MT-2
J
Heat flux MT-3 W m-2
 Dimensional quantities (2)
Derived quantity Dimension SI unit
Heat-transfer coefficient MT-3θ-I Wm-2K-1

Illuminance L-2J Cdm-2 (lux)

Mass flux L-2MT-1 kgm-2s-1

Momentum LMT-1 Kgms-1

Molar mass MN-1 Gmol-1
Osmotic pressure L-1MT-2 Kgm-1s-2

Power L2MT-3 m2kgs-3 or Js-1 or W (Watt)

Pressure/stress L-1MT-2 m-1kgs-2 or Nm-2 or Pa(Pascal)
Specific death constant T-l S-1

Specific growth rate T-l S-1

Specific production rate T-l S-1

Specific volume L3M-1 Kg-1m3

Surface tension MT-2 Nm-l

Viscosity (dynamic) L-1MT-1 Pa.s

Viscosity (kinematic) L2T-1 m2s-1
 1.1.2 Natural Variables (1)
• Dimensionless variables, dimensionless groups or dimensionless
numbers

• No unit(s) or any standard of measurement is required for their

magnitudes
e.g. the aspect ratio of a cylinder

• Other natural variables involve combinations of substantial

variables that do not have the same dimensions

• Engineers make frequent use of dimensionless numbers for

succinct representation of physical phenomena
e.g. 𝐑𝐞 =
𝐃𝐮𝛒
𝛍
 1.1.2 Natural Variables (2)
• Other dimensionless variables relevant to bioprocess engineering are
the Schmidt number, Prandtl number, Sherwood number, Peclet
number, Nusselt number, Grashof number, power number etc.

• Rotational phenomena;

𝑵 𝒖 𝒎 𝒃 𝒆 𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒓𝒄

𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒓𝒄
𝑵 𝒖 𝒎 𝒃 𝒆 𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 =
𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆

• Degrees, which are subdivisions of a revolution, are converted

into revolutions or radians before application in engineering
calculations
 1.1.3 Dimensional Homogeneity in Equations (1)
• Equations representing relationships between physical variables must
be dimensionally homogeneous

Margules equation for evaluating fluid viscosity:

𝑴 𝟏 𝟏
𝝁= − 𝟐
𝟒 𝝅 𝒉 �𝒐𝟐 �𝒊
𝜴 � �
• The argument of any transcendental function, such as a logarithmic,
trigonometric, exponential function, must be dimensionless ;

𝒙
e.g. cell growth is: 𝐥𝐧 = 𝝃𝒕
𝒙𝒐
where x = cell concentration at time t, xo = initial cell concentration, and 𝝃 = specific growth
rate
 1.1.3 Dimensional Homogeneity in Equations (2)
• The displacement y due to action of a progressive wave
with Amplitude A, frequency ω/2π and velocity v is given by the
equation:
𝒙
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎 𝒕 −
𝒗

• The relationship between α the mutation rate of Escherichia coli and

temperature T, can be described using an Arrhenius-type equation:
𝑬
𝜶 = 𝜶𝒐 𝒆 𝑹𝑻

• Integration and differentiation of terms affect dimensionality

 1.1.4 Equations Without Dimensional Homogeneity
• Equations in numeric or empirical equations

• Equations derived from observation rather than

from theoretical principles

• Richards' correlation for the dimensionless gas hold-up ϵ in a

stirred fermenter 𝟎.
𝐏 𝟒 𝟏
� 𝐮 𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝛜 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑
�
P (hp)
V = ungassed liquid volume(ft3)
u = linear gas velocity(ft/s)
ϵ = fractional gas hold-up
(dimensionless)
 1.2 Units (1)
• Unit names and their abbreviations have been standardised
according to SI convention

• SI convention - unit abbreviations are the same for

both singular and plural and are not followed by a period

• SI prefixes are used to indicate multiples and sub-multiples

of units

• No single system of units has universal application

 1.2 Units (2)
• Base Units - units for base quantities

• Multiple units - multiples or fraction of base unit e.g. minutes,

hours, milliseconds or all in term of base unit second

• Derived units - obtained in one of two ways;

 Multiplying and dividing base units (m2, ft/min, kgm/s2)

Defined as equivalents of compound units ( 1 erg = 1 g. cm/s2, 1 lbf = 32. 1

74 lbm. ft/s2)
 1.2 Units (3)
• Familiarity with both metric and non-metric units is necessary
• In calculations it is often necessary to convert units
• Units are changed using conversion factors
1 in = 2.54 cm ; 2.20 lb = 1 kg ; 1 slug = 14.5939kg

• Unit conversions are not only necessary to convert imperial units to

metric; some physical variables have several metric units in common
use e.g. (centipoise, kgh-1m-1), (Pa, atm, mmHg), (km/h, m/s, cm/s)
• Unity bracket e.g. 1lb = 453.6g
𝟏𝒍𝒃 𝟏𝒇𝒕
𝟏= 𝟒𝟓𝟑.𝟔𝒈
; 𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎.𝟒𝟖𝒄𝒎 =
𝟑𝟎.𝟒𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝟒𝟓𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝒍𝒃 𝟏𝒇𝒕
= 𝒈
 1.2.1 SI Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 Peta P 10-6 micro μ
1012 Tera T 10-9 nano n
109 Giga G 10-12 pico p
106 Mega M 10-15 femto f
103 Kilo k 10-18 atto a
102 Hecto h 10-21 zepto z
101 Deca da 10-24 yocto y
 1.3 Force and Weight
• In the British or imperial system, pound-force (lbf) = (1 lb mass)
x (gravitational acceleration at sea level and 45o latitude)

Units N, kgms-2, gcms-2, lbfts-2 ; 1N = 1kgms-2, 1lbf = 32.174lbmfts-2

𝟏 𝟏𝒍𝒃𝒇
• Dimensionless unity−bracket,𝒈𝒄 = 𝟏 𝑵 −𝟐 =
𝟏𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔 𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒𝒍𝒃𝒎𝒇𝒕𝒔−𝟐
=
Calculate the kinetic energy of 250 Ibm liquid flowing through a pipe at 35 ft s-I.
Express your answer in units of ft-lbf

• Weight changes according to the value of the gravitational acceleration

MEASUREMENT CONVENTIONS
 1.4 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Volume
• Densities of solids and liquids vary slightly with temperature

• Specific gravity a dimensionless variable also known

as relative density

• Specific volume is the inverse of density

• The density of solutions is a function of both

concentration and temperature

• Gas densities are highly dependent on temperature

and pressure
 1.5 Mole
• Amount of a substance containing the same number of
atoms, molecules, or ions as the number of atoms in 12
grams of 12C

• There are 6.022 × 1023 (Avogadro’s Constant) atoms of

carbon in 12 grams of 12C

• 𝑵 𝒖 𝒎 𝒃 𝒆 𝒓 𝒐 𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 =
𝑵 𝒖 𝒎 𝒃 𝒆 𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 (𝒈)
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒈𝒎𝒐𝒍 −𝟏 )
 1.5.1 Molar
massof substance, and has dimensions MN-l
• It is the mass of one mole
• Unit: g/mol
• Examples
H2 hydrogen 2.02 g/mol
He helium 4.0 g/mol
N2 nitrogen 28.0 g/mol
O2 oxygen 32.0 g/mol
CO2 carbon dioxide 44.0 g/mol
• Molar mass also referred to us molecular weight
e.g. How many atoms of Cu are present in 35.4 g of Cu? (Cu =
 1.6 Chemical compositions
• Mole fraction
• Mass fraction
• Mass percent e.g. sucrose solution with a concentration
of 40% w/w
• Volume fraction
• Volume percent e.g. H2SO4(aq) mixture of 30% (v/v) solution
• Molarity
• Molality
• Normality
 1.7 Temperature
• Two most common temperature scales are defined using the freezing point (Tf )
and boiling point (Tb ) of water at 1 atm.

 Celsius(or centigrade) scale

 Tf = 0oC and Tb = 100oC
 Absolute zero on this scale falls at -273.15oC

 Fahrenheit scale
 Tf = 32oF and Tb = 212oF
 Absolute zero on this scale falls at - 459.67oF

The Kelvin and Rankin scale are defined at absolute value of

Celsius and Fahrenheit;
 T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15
 T(oR) = T(oF) + 459.67
 T(oR) = 1.8 T(K)
 T(oF) = 1.8T (oC) + 32
 1.8 Pressure
• Units - psi, mmHg, atm, bar, Nm-2 etc.

• Absolute pressure is pressure relative to a complete vacuum

• Itis independent of location, temperature and

weather, absolute pressure is a precise and invariant quantity

• Pressure-measuring devices give relative pressure, also

called
gauge pressure

Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

 1.9 Standard Conditions and Ideal Gases
• Ideal gas - a hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws perfectly at
all temperatures and pressures

• A standard state of temperature and pressure is used when specifying

properties of gases, particularly molar volumes

• Volume of a gas depends on the quantity present, temperature

and pressure

• 1gmol of a gas at standard conditions of 1atm and 0°C occupies

a volume of 22.4 litres
 1.9.1 Ideal gas
equation(1)
Boyle’s law
At fixed n and T,
PV = constant
or
1
V P

n = number of moles of gas molecules

 1.9.1 Ideal gas equation
(2)
Charles’
law
At fixed n and P,

VT
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin, K
 1.9.1 Ideal gas equation (3)

V Avogadro’s law
n
P Boyle’s law
1
V
V T Charles’

law
R is the same for all gases
RnT
V P R is known as the universal gas constant

PV = nRT Ideal gas equation

 1.10 Chemical Equation and Stoichiometry
• What can we learn from a chemical equation?

C7H16 + 11O2 7CO2 + 8H2O

1. What information can we get from this equation?

2. What is the first thing we need to check when using a

chemical equation?

3. What do you call the number that precedes each chemical formula?

4. How do we interpret those numbers?

 1.11 Stoichiometry
• It’s concerned with measuring the proportions of elements
that combine during chemical reactions

• Atoms and molecules rearrange to form new groups in chemical

or biochemical reactions
2C2H5OH + 2CO2
C6H12O6

• Total mass is conserved

• Number of atoms of each element remains the same

• Moles of reactants ≠ moles of products

 Example

C7H16 + 11O2 7CO2 + 8H2O

If 10 kg of C7H16 react completely with the

stoichiometric quantity, how many kg of CO2 will be
produced? = 30.8 kg
 1.11.1 Stoichiometry Terminologies (1)

• Limiting reactant is the reactant present in the smallest stoichiometric

amount. It is the compound that will be consumed first if the reaction
proceeds to completion

• Excess reactant is a reactant present in an amount in excess of that

required to combine with all of the limiting reactant

• % 𝐄𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬= 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭−𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐞𝐝
 1.11.1 Stoichiometry Terminologies (2)

• Limiting and Excess Reactants

Consider a balanced chemical reaction: aA +bB cC

+dD

• Suppose x moles of A and y moles of B are present and they

react according to the above reaction,
𝒙 𝒂
 𝑰𝒇 < , ⇒ 𝑨 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒚 𝒃

𝒙 𝒂
 𝑰𝒇 > , ⇒ 𝑩 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒚 𝒃
 1.11.1 Stoichiometry Terminologies (3)
• Conversion is the fraction or percentage of a reactant converted
into products

𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅

% 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎
𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅
𝟎

• Degree of completion is usually the fraction or percentage of

the limiting reactant converted into products

𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅
 1.11.1 Stoichiometry Terminologies (4)
• Selectivity is the ratio of the moles of the desired product produced to
the moles of undesired product (by-product)

moles of desired product formed

𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒗
𝒄
𝒚
𝒕𝒊𝒕=
moles of undesired product formed

• Yield is the ratio of mass or moles of product formed to the mass

or moles of reactant consumed

actual amount of product formed

𝒀𝒆
𝒊𝒅
𝒍=
theoretical amount of product expected
 Example
2CH3OH ⇌ C2H4 + 2H2O

3CH3OH ⇌ C3H6 + 3H2O

If the desired product is ethylene, then the selectivity is

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅

𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅