VERTEX COLORINGS

Materi Diskusi Kuliah

Teori Graf

PRODI PENDIDIKAN MATEMATIKA

FKIP UNIVERSITAS JEMBER
L/O/G/O
OLEH :
KELOMPOK 1
Outline

Introduction Definition of Example of

of Vertex vertex Vertex
coloring coloring Coloring
Outline

Chromatic Critical Theorem and

Number Graph Proof
 INTRODUCTION
Proper Coloring

Given a graph
G, find a
coloring of the
vertices so that
Vertex
no two Coloring Improper Coloring
neighbors in G
have the same
color
 INTRODUCTION

w
The wheel with n spokes, n is the graph that
Vertex consist of an n – cycle and one additional vertex
Coloring that is adjacent to all the vertices of the cycle.. In
Figure 2.1.1 we display W4 and W5

1
1 2
3 2
3 4

2 1 2 1
W4 W5
Figure 2.1.1
 DEFINITION OF VERTEX
COLORING

Given a graph G, we define a

coloring of G to be an
assignment of colors to the
vertices of G such that no two
adjacent vertices receive the
same color.
Vertex
Coloring
EXAMPLE OF VERTEX COLORING
EXAMPLE OF VERTEX COLORING
CHROMATIC NUMBER

If G has p vertices we can color G with

p colors.
What is

We denote the minimum number of

chromatic colors necessary to color G by X( G ), the
chromatic number of the graph G.
number
X( G ) = n means the graph G is colorable by
n colors, and G is not colorable by n – 1
??? colors. Example in figure 2.1.1, X ( w4 ) = 3
and X ( w5 ) = 4.
CHROMATIC NUMBER

The only graph with p vertices and a c

chromatic number equal to p is K P
What is e

For Instance, what is the chromatic

chromatic number of the graph G in figure 2.1.2 ?

number b
Figure 2.1.2
We see that there is a subgraph isomorphic
to K4. Thus X (G )  4
???
CHROMATIC NUMBER

4 5

1 3 3 1

2
2
 CHROMATIC NUMBER

Let G be a graph, and let v be a vertex of G. If we remove v

and all the edges incident with v from G, the resulting graph
C
is called G – v. Similarly, if e is any edge of G, the graph H
obtained from G by removing e is G – e. We leave all the
R N
vertices in G when we remove an edge. If v is a vertex of K P
, then K P  v is isomorphic to K P 1 . If G is the graph in O U
figure 2.1.2, G – a is the graph in Figure 2.1.3 and G – e is
M M
the graph in Figure 2.1.4
A B
T E
I R
C

Figure 2.1.3 Figure 2.1.4

 Critical Graph D
Let G be a graph. If H is a subgraph of G, E
and H ≠ G, then H is called a proper
subgraph of G. if χ(H) < χ(G) for every proper
F
subgraph H of G, then we say that G is I
critical.
The graphs of Figures 2.1.2 and 2.1.5 are N
critical, and the complete graph Kn is also
critical for every n. I
T
I
Figure
O
2.1.5 N
 THEOREM

Every critical graph

Theorem
is connected.
2.1.1
 THEOREM

Theorem Every graph G contains a critical subgraph

H such that χ(H) = χ(G).
2.1.2
 THEOREM

1. If G is critical, then the theorem is true

for H = G.
2. If G is not critical, then there exists a
proper subgraph of H1 of G with χ(H1) =
χ(G).
3. If H1 is critical, then we are done; H = H1.
Prove
Theorem
2.1.2
4. If H1 is not critical there exists a proper
subgraph of H2 of H1 such that χ(H2) =
χ(H1) = χ(G).
5. We continue in this manner. Since G is
finite, for some k we must obtain a
subgraph Hk such that Hk is critical.
Then H = Hk.
 THEOREM

If G is critical with chromatic number four,

Theorem then the degree of each vertex is at least
2.1.3.a three.
 THEOREM

1. Suppose that the theorem is false.

2. Then there exists a critical graph G with
chromatic number four and a vertex v of
G such that the degree of v is at most
two.
3. Since G is critical, G − v can be colored Prove
with only three colors. Theorem
4. So we color G − v with three colors. 2.1.3.a
5. We put the vertex v back; v is adjacent
to at most two vertices, so there is at
least one of the three colors left to color
v.
6. But this is a contradiction, since G has
chromatic number four.
7. Thus the degree of each vertex is at
least three.
 THEOREM

If G is critical with chromatic number χ,

Theorem then the degree of each vertex is at least χ
2.1.3.b – 1.
 THEOREM

1. The proof is the same with theorem

2.1.3.a. ; instead of four we substitute
χ.
2. Another example that illustrates the
more general theorem is the critical
graph of Figure 2.1.2, where χ = 5, and Prove
the degree of each vertex is at least Theorem
four. 2.1.3.b
 THEOREM

If G is a critical graph with p vertices

Theorem and q edges, and G has chromatic
2.1.4. number χ, then the relation
(χ − 1)p ≤ 2q
holds.
 THEOREM

1. By theorem 2.1.3, the degree of each

vertex of G is at least χ – 1, and there
are p vertices.
2. So the sum of the degrees of the Prove
vertices of the G is at least (χ – 1)p.
Theorem
3. By theorem 1.1.1, the sum of the 2.1.4
degrees of the vertices of G is equal to
2q.
4. Hence theorem 2.1.4 is proved.
The graph in Figure 2.1.7 is
also critical. There exists
graphs of arbitrarily high girth
and arbitrarily high chromatic
number [7],[17].
04
NOTE :
The girth of a graph is the
length of a shortest cycle in
the graph. The girth of the
graphs in Figure 2.1..6 and
2.1.7 is four.
We know that if a graph G
contains a subgraph
01 isomorphic to K4 or Wn for n
odd, then χ(G) ≥ 4.
02
The graphs in Figures 2.1.6
and 2.1.7 also have
03
chromatic number 4, but they
contain no triangles, and that
makes it hard to check that
the two graphs are not
colorable by three colors.
Figure 2.1.6 The Grotzsch Figure 2.1.6 The Grotzsch
Figure 2.1.7
 THEOREM

(ErdÖs-Lovász). For every two integers

Theorem m, n ≥ 2, there exists a graph with
2.1.5. chromatic number n whose girth
exceeds m.

Let G be a graph, and let x and y
be vertices of G. The distance
from x to y in G, denoted by d(x,y),
is the length of a shortest path
from x to y. If there is no path from
x to y, we say d(x,y) = ∞. In Figure
2.1.2, d(a,b) = 2, d(a,c) = 1.
04
The cube graph Q3 of Figure
1.2.5 is another example of a
bipartite graph, but the
dodecahedron graph is not.
An unsolved coloring problem is the
following conjecture of Lovász. If G is
graph such that χ(G – v – w) = χ(G) –
2 for every pair of adjacent vertices v
01 and w, then G is a comlete graph.
Exersize 2.1.3 is a modified version of
this problem. It differs by only one
word, but it is much easier to prove.
NOTE : 02
A graph G is called bipartite
if χ(G) ≤ 2. A special
example of a bipartite graph,
03 the complete bipartite graph
Km,n, was defined in chapter
1.
 THEOREM

graph G is bipartite if and only if every

Theorem cycle in G has even length.
2.1.6.
 THEOREM

1. Assume that G is bipartite. Suppose

that G contains an odd cycle C. Then
χ(C) = 3. Thus χ(G) ≥ 3, but this is a
contradiction since G is bipartite. Hence
G can not contain an odd cycle.
2. Now assume that G is a graph with no
odd cycles. Without loss of generality, Prove
we assumed that G is connected. Why Theorem
can we do this? 2.1.6
3. Select a vertex x0 of G. We color G as
follows. If x is a vertex of G, we color x
red if d(x0,x) is even, and we color x
blue if d(x0,x) is odd. (So for instance,
since d(x0,x0) = 0, x0 is colored red
because 0 is even.)
4. Since every distance is either even or
odd, every vertex is now colored.
 THEOREM

5. Now we must show that no two adjacent

vertices have the same color. We
consider two adjacent vertices x and y.

Prove
Theorem
6. We choose a shortest path from x0 to x 2.1.6
and a shortest path from x0 to y. let u be
the last common vertex in these
shortest paths. (See Figure 2.1.8.) The
vertex u may be equal to x0, or u may
also be x or y.
 THEOREM

7. Now we consider d(u,x) and d(u,y). If u

is one of x or y, then either d(u,x) =
d(u,y) + 1 or d(u,x) = d(u,y) – 1. In
either case, one of the distances is odd
and one is even. We say they have
different parity.
Prove
8. If u is not one of x or y, we now compute
Theorem
the length of the cycle in Figure 2.1.8. It
2.1.6
is d(u,x) + 1 + d(u,y). We know this is
even. Hence d(u,x) and d(u,y) have
different parity.
9. Since d(x0,x) = d(x0,u) + d(u,x) and
d(x0,y) = d(x0,u) + d(u,y), d(x0,x) and
d(x0,y) also have different parity. Thus x
and y receive different colors, and χ(G)
≤ 2, so G is bipartite.
 THEOREM

Theorem 2.1.6 shows that trees

are bipartite. Every cycle in a tree has
N
even length, since there are no cycles in
a tree. In other words, if there is a cycle
in a tree, then the cycle has even
O
length. An “if-then” statement is always
true if there is no circumstance that
makes the “if” part true. Such a
T
statement is vacuously true. We give
you a strange example. All my violins
have length. This is true since I have no
E
violins. See also exercise 2.1.8.
 THEOREM

The diameter of a graph G is the

N
maximum distance between any two
vertices of G. For instance, the diameter of
Pn is n; the diameter of Wn is 2 if n > 3;

O
the diameter of Kn is 1; and the diameter
of Km,n is 2 if m or n is at least two. In
applications of graph theory to

T
communications networks, diameter is
important. One wishes to have a graph
with small diameter and as few edges as

E
possible, together with certain other
restrictions. This is a very active area of
research now.
Thank You!

L/O/G/O