CHAPTER 2

Diode
 Semiconductor material

Conductance (S) or Resistivity  (.cm)

Material  ( cm) Charge carrier

Conductor 10-5 – 10-6 electron
Semiconductor 10-4 – 10+10 Electron + hole
Insulator 10+9 – 10+18 electron

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Copper (Cu) Ge Si Mica
= 10 -6.cm = 50.cm  = 50  103  = 1012 .cm
.cm
Semiconductor atoms
COMPARISON IN ENERGY MAP
 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR (I)
Electron
Heat or light Eg

Eg

Impurity level: 1/10 billion!!

At room temperature there are
Valence electrons approximately 1.5 x 10^10 free carriers in
A covalent bonding 1 cm3 of intrinsic silicon material
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR (I)
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
(N for negative)
Not in any covalent bonding
=> easier to break free

(Donor energy
level)

Doping atoms of group 5 (Ph, As, etc.)

 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
(P for positive)
: electron : hole
Lack of 1 electron in the covalent
bonding => tend to take the
neighbouring electron to fill in

(Acceptor energy
level)

hole

Doping atoms of group 3 (Al, B, etc.)

 CHARGE CARRIER CREATION IN
SEMICONDUCTORS
  electron:   Electron (majority):   Hole (majority):
hole: Hole (minority): electron (minority):

wv wv wv
wd
wa
wc wc wc

Wc – Wd = 0.05eV (Si) Wa – Wv = 0.08eV (Si)

Intrinsic semiconductor 0.01eV (Ge) 0.03eV (Ge)
(pair of electron-hole) n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
(mostly ionization) (mostly ionization)
 HOLE FLOW
E

` ` ` `
`

`
` ` `

The flow of holes is actually the flow of valence electrons!

 THE BALANCE IN CHARGE CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS
  

Where:

, : effective concentration in the conduction and valence regions.

K: Boltzmann constant = 1,38 . J/K

h: Plank constant = 6,626 . J.s

: effective mass of electron and hole in the valence region.

 CURRENTS IN A SEMICONDUCTOR
1.  

Drifting current: flow of carriers under an external electrical field
Electrical field E

Idrifting

Idiffusion
2. Diffusion current: flow of carriers due to differences in the
concentrations between 2 regions
 SUMMARY
1. A semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between that of a good conductor and that of an insulator.

2. A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons between neighboring atoms, is called covalent bonding.

3. Increasing temperatures can cause a significant increase in the number of free electrons in a semiconductor material.

4. Most semiconductor materials used in the electronics industry have negative temperature coefficients ; that is, the resistance
drops with an increase in temperature.

5. An n -type material is formed by adding donor atoms that have five valence electrons to establish a high level of relatively free
electrons. In an n -type material, the electron is the majority carrier and the hole is the minority carrier.

6. A p -type material is formed by adding acceptor atoms with three valence electrons to establish a high level of holes in the
material. In a p -type material, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.
 QUESTIONS
1. In your own words, define an intrinsic semiconductor and covalent bonding.
2. What is intrinsic semiconductors used for?
3. What is the difference between n -type and p -type semiconductor materials?
4. What is the difference between majority and minority carriers?
5. What is the difference between donor and acceptor?
6. What is the difference between an electron and a hole?
7. How is the hole created?
8. Sketch the atomic structure of silicon and insert an impurity of arsenic (group 5). Is it n-type or p-
type?
9. Repeat Problem 8, but insert an impurity of Al (group 3).
10. How many types of currents can happen in semiconductors? Describe them.
 QUESTIONS
1. In your own words, define an intrinsic semiconductor and covalent bonding.
An intrinsic semiconductor is a piece of material that contains only 1 type of atom of group 4 in the
structure.
Covalent bonding is a bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons between neighboring
atoms.

2. What is intrinsic semiconductors used for?

It is the material for the doping process from which n-type and p-type semiconductors are made.

3. What is the difference between n -type and p -type semiconductor materials?

n-type is created by doping atoms of group 5, while p-type is by group 3.
 QUESTIONS
4. What is the difference between majority and minority carriers?
Majority carrier is the charge carrier type with higher concentration.
Minority carrier is the charge carrier type with lower concentration.

5. What is the difference between donor and acceptor?

Donor indicates the atom that only give away free electrons.
Acceptor indicates the atom that only receive electrons.

6. What is the difference between an electron and a hole?

An electron has negative charge, a hole has positive charge

7. How is a hole created?

A hole is created when a valence electron breaks free from the bonding to become a free electron.
 QUESTIONS
8. Sketch the atomic structure of silicon and insert an impurity of arsenic (group 5). Is it n-type or
p-type?

Not in any covalent bonding

=> easier to break free

As

n-type
 QUESTIONS
9. Repeat Problem 8, but insert an impurity of Al (group 3).

Lack of 1 electron in the covalent

bonding => tend to take the
neighbouring electron to fill in

Al

p-type
 QUESTIONS

10. How many types of currents can happen in semiconductors? Describe them.

2 types of currents:
- Drifting current: due to an external electrical field.
- Diffusion current: due to differences in concentrations between
two pieces.
P-N JUNCTION WITHOUT EXTERNAL ELECTRICAL FIELD

  𝐊𝐓 𝐩𝐩 𝐊𝐓 𝐧𝐧
Diffusion of holes

Diffusion of electrons
Depletion zone
Ujunc
𝐔 𝒋𝒖𝒏𝒄 =
𝐪
𝐥𝐧
( )
𝐩𝐧
=
𝐪
𝐥𝐧
𝐧𝐩 ( )
 
(Ge)
- - + + (Si)
P - - - + + +
N
- +
- - +
 𝐍 𝐀
Idiffusion
𝐝 𝐧 , 𝐣𝐮𝐧𝐜 Idrifting
=  𝐈 𝐃 =𝐈 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝐈 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝐍 𝐃 𝐝 𝐩 , 𝐣𝐮𝐧𝐜 dp,junc dn,junc

djunc
  At dynamic
equalibrium

→ =0
P-N JUNCTION WHEN BEING REVERSE BIASED
  ==
: reverse saturation current
Depletion zone expands Ujunc + U

- - - + +
P - + + + N
- - +
- +
- - - + +
  decreases => 0
Idiffusion
increases Idrifting
=> quickly dp,junc dn,junc , : diffusion coefficient of
saturated: Is hole and electron
djunc , : diffusion length

E
Is
P-N JUNCTION WHEN BEING FORWARD BIASED
  (>>)

Ujunc - U

- - + +
P - + + N
- -
- +
- - +
Idiffusion Surges
Idrifting
Decreases and (dramatically increases)
becomes dp,junc dn,junc
negligible
djunc

E ID
 VOLT-AMPERE
CHARACTERISTICS
 Shockley
  equation:
ID
Forward
: reverse saturation current Reverse bias
bias
: voltage dops on the diode
Diode symbol IS
: thermal votlage:
(25mV ở C) UD0 UD
K: Boltzmann constant Electrical
T: temperature (Kelvin) breakdown or
Zener region
q: magnitude of electron charge
m: ideality factor (depending on the
manufacturing process).
Thermal
breakdown
region
 VOLT-AMPERE
CHARACTERISTICS
There are differences between Shockley
equation, an idea equation found from
fitting experimented data into an
exponential equation, and a commercial
diode

=> Always check the datasheet of the

product you buy!
 VOLT-AMPERE
CHARACTERISTICS

Different curves for different

semiconductor materials
 VOLT-AMPERE
CHARACTERISTICS

Curve depending on the temperature

 SUMMARY
1. A semiconductor diode is constructed by joining a n-type and a p-type together.
2. The region near the junction of a diode that has very few carriers is called the depletion zone/region.
3. In the absence of any externally applied bias, the diode current is zero.
4. When being forward biased, the diode current increases exponentially with increase in voltage across the diode.
5. When being reverse biased, the diode current is the very small reverse saturation current until Zener breakdown is
reached and current will flow in the opposite direction through the diode.
6. The reverse saturation current I s will just about double in magnitude for every 10-fold increase in temperature.
7. The threshold voltage is about 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes.
8. A diode’s general behaviour can be described through Shockley equation and the volt-ampere characteristics.
9. However, the general Shockley equation’s volt-ampere curve is different from that of a commercial diode => before using, you
need to take a look at a datasheet of the product!
10. Temperature is a key factor affecting a device’s behaviour. Everything changes with temperature!
   QUESTIONS
1. Sketch the construction of a semiconductor diode and fill in important parameters.
2. Describe in your own words the conditions established by forward- and reverse-bias conditions on a p–n
junction diode and how the resulting current is affected.
3. a. Determine the thermal voltage for a diode at a temperature of 20°C.
b. For the same diode of part (a), find the diode current using Eq. 1.2 if = 40 nA, m = 1, and the applied bias
voltage is 0.5 V.
4. Repeat Problem 3 for T 100°C (boiling point of water). Assume that I s has increased to 5.0 mA.
5. a. Using Schockley equation, determine the diode current at 20°C for a silicon diode with m = 2, = 0.1 µA at a
reverse-bias potential of -10 V.
b. Is the result expected? Why?
6. Sketch the volt-ampere curve of a general Silicon diode?
7. Sketch the volt-ampere curves of a general Silicon diode with three different temperatures from low to high?
 ABSOLUTE RATING PARAMETERS
  
1. Breakdown voltage: (V)

2. Maximum reverse voltage: (V)

3. Maximum effective forward current: (A)

4. Maximum peak forward current: (A)

5. The maximum power dissipation level at a particular temperature:

(W)

6. Temperature-dependent coefficient:(W/◦C)

7. Maximum frequency: (Hz), depending on , and

 1. Electrical parameters
  
1. Diode static (DC) impedance: (Ω)

2. Diode dynamic (AC) impedance: (Ω)

At room temperature (C): with m = 1.

In case if is small:

3. Bar capacitance: (significant when diode is reverse biased) (pF)

4. Diffusion capacitance: (when diode is forward biased) (pF)

5. Reverse recovery time:

 1. Electrical parameters
  
1. Diode static (DC) impedance: (Ω)

Q-point or
point of operation
 1. Electrical parameters
 2.   Diode dynamic (AC) impedance: (Ω)

Q-point or
point of operation
 1. Electrical parameters
 3.   Bar (or transition) capacitance: (significant when diode is reverse biased) (pF)

4. Diffusion capacitance: (when diode is forward biased) (pF)

 
: due to depletion region capacitance
: due to diffusion
 
When forward biased, decides the working
frequency:

If the signal frequency is too high, diode cannot

response in-time => forward voltage is smaller
Better choose the diode satisfying:
 1. Electrical parameters
  
5. Reverse recovery time:

UD
 ts :storage time

t tt :transition interval

ID Better to pick diode:

Voltage changes
the direction
Forward current

Reverse current

t
 2. Mechanical parameters
1. Diode package
2. Dimension
3. Volume
4. …
  
(because )

= 2mA

  ∆ 𝐔 𝐃
( 𝟐) 𝒓𝐃 ≈
∆ 𝐈 𝐃

= 2mA
 Given:
 

Signal is a sine:

= 2mA

 
1. What does the voltage drop on the
diode look like?
2. What is the maximum for to be not
distorted?

  𝟏
𝝉 ≥ 𝟏𝟎 ∗
𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
2. Find the maximum signal frequency for the diode to still rectify the signal properly?
  𝟏
𝝉 𝒓𝒓 ≥ 𝟐 ∗
𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
 LOW-FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
1. Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

To approximate the characteristics of the

device by straight-line segments
 LOW-FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
2. Simplified Equivalent Circuit

 In many cases, => we can ignore in the circuit calculations

  is accepted
 LOW-FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
3. Ideal diode:

 In some other cases, and => we can ignore and in the circuit calculations

  is accepted
HIGH-FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

High-frequency equivalent circuit (f  100MHz )

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 DIODE APPLICATION
1. Full-wave rectifier using 2 diodes

 Without a capacitor:

- Output voltage:

Uo = (2/).(UV,peak - 2UD)

UV = 2UV1; UV1 = UV2

- Output current:
Io = Uo/Rt
Output voltage:
- Maximum reverse voltage drops on each diode:

UR, max = 2UV1,peak Ura, peak

 Ura
1 5
UV1 D1
6
Uac
4 8 UV2
+ C
Rt
 Using a capacitor: 220V~

- Output voltage:
D2

Uo  UV, peak Output voltage:

- Output current:

IO = Uo/Rt

- Maximum reverse voltage drops on each diode: UR, max =

2UV1,peak
Uo  UV, peak
2. Full-wave rectifier using a bridge diode

symbol
a bridge diode

Some commercial bridge diodes:

  Without a capacitor:

- Output voltage:

Uo = (2/).(UV, peak - 2UD)

- Output current:

Io = Uo/Rt Output voltage:

- Maximum reverse voltage drops on each diode: UR, max =

Ura, peak
UV,peak
 Ura
~
1 5 D1 D2
- +
UV
4 8 Rt + C
D4 D3
~

 Using a capacitor :

- Output voltage: UV

Uo  UV,peak

- Output current: Ura

Uo

IO = Uo/Rt

- Maximum reverse voltage drops on each diode : UR, max = Ura

Uo

UV, peak
 3. Voltage multiplier (double)

 half-wave rectifier UV

2UV
UV

UC2 = UV + UC1 = 2UV = Ura

 full-wave rectifier

UV
Ura = UC1+ UC2 = 2UV

2UV
3. Voltage multiplier
+ 3Um -

C1 C3
+ - + -

Um 2Um

D1 D3
Triple C2
D2

+ -

2Um

C1 C3
+ - + -
...

Um 2Um

D1 D3
D2 D4 Dn
n-times C2 C4 Cn
+ - + - ... + -

2Um 2Um 2Um

nUm
4. Clippers
4. Clippers (continues)
4. Clippers (continues)
4. Clampers
 6. Zener Diode - DZ

* Characteristics:

- Diode Zener is similar to a normal rectifying diode except it’s Zener region is much steeper
Þ Used as a voltage regulator in the Zener region

* Symbol:

DZ
* Working conditions:

+ Forward bias: same as a general-purpose diode

DZ
A K
UDz = 0.7V

+
UZ
E A K

IZ

+ reverse bias: - +

With E  UKA, max and IZmin  IZ  IZ max , DZ works in the Zener region – the main purpose of its

construction
 Volt-Ampere characteristics of a Zener diode

Forward bias
Reverse bias

Zener region

Thermal breakdown region

 Đánh thủng xuyên hầm và đánh thủng Thác

- Đánh thủng xuyên hầm: Khi pha tạp chất ở vùng P và N với nồng nộ cao.

Khi đó Nồng nộ hạt dẫn rất cao pp và nn cỡ > 1020 và bề dầy

lớp tiếp xúc rất nhỏ, hàng rào thế năng có độ rộng cỡ < 500Ao,
tương ứng với điện trường khoảng 108V/m. Khi đó điện trường
tại lớp tiếp xúc rất lớn đủ giải phóng các điện tử khỏi mối liên
kết để thành hạt dẫn tự do, và làm dòng ngược tăng đột ngột.
Cơ chế đánh thủng này có tên là đánh thủng Zener. Điện áp
đánh thủng theo cơ chế này thường xảy ra ở điện áp thấp UBR
thường < 5V.
 Đánh thủng xuyên hầm và đánh thủng Thác

- Đánh thủng thác (Avalanche): Khi pha tạp chất ở vùng P và N với nồng nộ thấp.

Đánh thủng thác là do điện tử va chạm vào mạng tinh thể gây nên
hiện tượng ion hoá làm tăng dòng ngược. Khi này nồng nộ pha tạp của
tạp chất thấp nên tiếp xúc PN có bề dầy lớn (dtx lớn) .Điện tử chuyển
động trên quãng đường dtx có đủ động năng để ion hoá mạng tinh thể
nhiều lần (điện trường cỡ 107V/m) và sinh ra nhiều điện tử tự do theo
cấp số nhân làm dòng ngược tăng vọt tại UBR. Với cơ chế đánh thủng
thác điện áp UBR thường lớn cỡ > 5V. Trong dải UBR từ 5V đến 7V
thường đồng thời xảy ra cả hai loại cơ chế đánh thủng: Zener và thác .
Tuy hiện tượng đánh thủng do hai hiệu ứng gây ra nhưng người ta
gọi chung vùng đặc tuyến này là vùng Zener để tưởng nhớ nhà Bác học
Zener người tìm ra hiệu ứng đánh thủng xuyên hầm.
Hiện tượng đánh thủng do điện không làm hỏng Điot.
 Diode Zener’s important parameters:

-UZ: nominal Zener voltage, ranging 1,8V 1000V

- IZmin: minimum current to keep the diode in the Zener region.
- IZmax: maximum Zener-region current
- IZ0: nominal current,
- Rz: static Zener impedance,

rZ: dynamic Zener impedance

The lower rZ is, the more stable UZ is => better Zener didoe
- Z: stability coefficient,

 Z is high when rZ is small.

- PZmax: maximum power consumption,

 K
Diode Zener’s equivalent circuit

K K
K  +

rZ

+
E

+
E UZ - +
-
A A UZ
A A
rZ = 0 rZ # 0

* Diode Zener’s basic application:

R Uz
I
Ura + if rZ 0:
+
UZ = E - IR= Ura
E
+ if rZ # 0:

0
UZ = E - I(R+rZ) = Ura
 K
Diode Zener’s equivalent circuit

K K
K  +

rZ

+
E

+
E UZ - +
-
A A UZ
A A
rZ = 0 rZ # 0

* Diode Zener’s basic application:

R Uz
I
Ura + if rZ 0:
+
UZ = E - IR= Ura
E
+ if rZ # 0:

0
UZ = E - I(R+rZ) = Ura