Unit: 5

Introduction
to
Lymphatic System
Unit: 5 Introduction to Lymphatic System 7 Hrs
5.1 Structure and function of lymphatic system
5.2 Lymphatic vessels
5.3 Lymphatic organs and tissue
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Tonsils
 Payer’s patches
Lymphatic system
 The lymphatic system is a part of circulatory system and a vital
part of the immune system comparing a network of lymphatic
vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally
towards the heart.
 This system also known as lymphoid system or immune
system.
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues
and organs that help rid the body of toxins,
waste and other unwanted materials.
 The lymphatic system consists of lymph
vessels , lymph node , and lymph. The tonsils ,
spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic
system.
The primary function of lymphatic system is to
transport lymph , a fluid containing infection –
fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.
 The tissue fluid derived from the blood plasma and waste
products from the cells is returned to the venous capillary but
within the tissue space fine capillary vessels known as
lymphatic capillaries begin, which helps to drain the waste
products and water from the interstitial spaces.


 The fluid within the lymphatic capillaries and vessels is known
as lymph.
 The composition of lymph is likely of the blood plasma but
the dissolved substances are in different concentration.
 Lymph also contains materials which may be damaging to the
body. Because of the greater permeability of the lymph
capillaries, substances of larger size can enter these vessels and
be removed from the interstitial space eg . If infection is
present and phagocytosis has occurred, the neutrophils and
monocytes with their ingested micro organism are drained
away in the lymphatic capillaries and vessels and finally
destroyed by lymph nodes.
The lymphatic system consists of
following structure:-
a. Lymph capillary
b. Lymph vessels
c. Lymph duct
i. The thoracic duct
ii. The right lymphatic duct
d. Lymph nodes
The accessory organs of lymphatic
system are:-
a. Spleen
b. Tonsil
c. Thymus gland
 Function of lymphatic system
1. It helps to absorbed the fat from small intestine because the
only way of fat absorption is lymph.
2. The protein which contain in tissue fluid, send into the
blood .
3. It supplies nutrition and oxygen for those organs where
blood supply is impossible.
4. Its nature is lymphocytes.
5. It serves as an immune system for the body by providing
lymphocytes and other.
6. The lymph node filters the lymph and neutralizes the
bacteria by the process of phagocytosis.
7. It transports the infection and other malignant cells from the
organ to another so the cancer is spread mainly through
lymph vessels.
8. It removes the waste products from intercellular fluid.
Lymph
 Lymph is a clear , watery appearing fluid found in the
lymphatic vessels.
 A thin coagulable fluid (Similar to plasma but ) containing
white blood cells (lymphocytes) and chyle (A milky fluid
consisting of lymph and emulsified fat ; formed in the small
intestine during digestion of ingested fats) ; is convey to the
blood steam by lymphatic vessels.
 The lymph is formed where the interstitial fluid (the fluid
which lies in the interstices of all body tissues) is collected
through lymph capillaries. It is then transported through
lymph vessels to lymph nodes before emptying ultimately
into the right and left subclavian vein , where it mixes back
with blood
Composition of Lymph
Lymph contain a variety of substance
including:-
Protein
Salt
Glucose
Fats
Water
White blood cells
Formation of lymph
Plasma gets filtered into the interstitial space across the
capillary wall.
This will be reabsorbed, leaving a small amount of fluid
behind.
In glands, various substance like protein, fats are also enters
into the interstitial space.
Various organic substance from degenerating cells are also
enters in the interstitial space.
The left out fluid and other substances enter the lymph vessels
and constitute lymph.
Small pressure favours the formation of more fluid than they
absorbed this fluid enters the lymphatic vessels.
Function
Lymphatic vessels play a role in:-
Absorption of dietary fats
Delivering fats to the bloodstream.
Collecting of excess interstitial fluids to the
bloodstream.
Delivering foreign particles to the lymph nodes.
 Lymph capillaries
The lymphatic capillaries are end tubes originated
from interstitial space. It is composed of a single layer
of endothelial cells, same structure as blood capillaries
but their walls are more permeable to all interstitial
fluid constituents including proteins and cell debris.
Lymphatic capillaries are widespread, but are absent in
bones, bone marrow, teeth and CNS.
Lymphatic capillary are incredibly permeability much
more so than blood capillaries.
 The tiny lymphatic capillaries join with each other to
form lymphatic vessels.
 Lymph Vessels
The walls of the lymphatic vessels are about the
same structure as those of a small vein.
Lymphatic vessels begin at the blind ended
capillary weave between the tissue of the body.
It has 3 layers.

i. The outer coat:- Fibrous tissue which acts as a

protective covering.
ii. The middle coat:- muscular and elastic tissue .
iii. The inner coat:- single layer of endothelial cells.
These lymphatic vessels contain numerous cup
shaped valves that prevent backward flow of
lymph . There is no pump like the heart , which
involved in the onward movement of lymph but
the muscle tissue in the walls of the large lymph
vessels has an intrinsic ability to contract
rhythmically . The other factors which helps in
flowing of lymph includes:
Tissue fluid pressure
Contractions of surrounding muscles
Pressure caused by the pulsation of adjacent
arteries.
Negative pressure in the thorax during inspiration.
 These lymph vessels join together and become
larger, eventually forming two larger ducts ,the thoracic
duct and the right lymphatic duct, that empty lymph into
the subclavian veins.
The thoracic duct:- This duct begins at the cysterna
chyli (A sac or cavity containing fluid especially
lymph or cerebrospinal fluid) ,which is a sac like
dilatation on the lymphatic pathway situated in
front of the first and second lumber vertebrae to the
right of the abdominal aorta.
The thoracic duct is the largest
lymphatic vessels in the body and contains several
valves. It is approximately 40cm (16 inch) in length
. It extends from the lower border of the body of
thoracic vertebrae to the root of the neck and opens
into the subclavian veins. This duct conveys all
lymph from the lower limbs , pelvic cavity
,abdominal cavity, left side of the chest, left side of
the head ,neck and left side to the subclavian vein
The Right lymphatic duct:- The right lymphatic
duct is about 1cm in length . It is lies in the root
of the neck and terminates by emptying its
contents into the right subclavian vein. The right
lymphatic duct receive all the lymph which has
drained from the right half of the head and neck ,
the right arm and the right side of the chest.
 Lymphatic tissue
Lymphatic tissue is a specialized form of reticular
connective tissue in the lymphatic system that
contains large number of lymphocytes.
The lymphatic tissue include the lymph nodes,
spleen, tonsils, adenoids(A collection of lymphatic
tissue in the throat behind the uvula) and thymus.
There are a number of lymphatic tissue in our
body in addition to lymph nodes . These are :
a. The tonsils(Between the mouth and oral part of
the pharynx)
b. Pharyngeal tonsil:-On the wall of nasopharynx
a. Solitary lymphatic follicles :- In the wall
of the small intestine
b. Aggregated lymphatic nodules :- In the
small intestine(Payers patches)
c. Vermiform appendix:- Out growth from
the caecum.
 Lymph nodes
 Lymph nodes are the collection of the lymphatic tissue(Lymphatic
tissue is rich in lymphocytes) containing mainly lymphocytes and
macrophages(Involve in detection, phagocytosis and destruction of
bacteria and other harmful organism. A large phagocyte some are fixed
and other circulate in the blood stream). They are situated in
strategic(systemic) position throughout the body .
 It is surrounded by a capsule.
 The size of the lymph is variable from a pin head to the size of an
almond , oval or kidney shaped and range in size from a few
millimeters and it is about 1–2 cm long
 Lymph nodes are major sites of B lymphocytes (Are predominately
concentrated in the cortex) and T lymphocytes(in the paracortex), and
other immune cells. Lymph nodes are important for the proper
functioning of the immune system, acting as filters for foreign particles
and cancer cells.
 Lymph nodes is also capable of making a controlled response to
antigenic stimulation.
 Each lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, and inside
the lymph node the fibrous capsule extends to form trabeculae.
 The node is made by reticular(forming a network) and
lymphatic tissues containing mainly lymphocytes and
macrocytes.
 The lymph nodes act filters for the lymph tapping particular
matter and micro organisms.
 The substance of the lymph node is divided into the outer
cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex is continuous around
the medulla except at the hilum, where the medulla comes in
direct contact with the hilum.
 Thin reticular fibers and elastin form a supporting meshwork
called a reticular network inside the node.
 White blood cells (leukocytes), the most prominent ones being
lymphocytes, are tightly packed in the follicles (B cells) and the
cortex (T cells).
The vessels bringing lymph to the node are called
the afferent vessels.
The vessels which leaves lymph nodes drain lymph
away from the node is called efferent vessels.
There are as many as 4-5 afferent vessels while
only one efferent vessels presents in each lymph
nodes.
Each lobe has a concave surface called the hilum
where an artery enters ,a vein and the efferent
lymph vessels leave.
Capsule
 The lymph node capsule is composed of dense irregular
connective tissue with some plain muscle fibers, and from its
internal surface are given off a number of membranous processes
or trabeculae, consisting, in humans of connective tissue.
 The sub capsular sinus is the space between the capsule and the
cortex which allows the free movement of lymphatic fluid and so
contains a sparsity of lymphocytes.
 The lymph node contains lymphoid tissue, i.e., a meshwork or
fibers called reticulum with white blood cells enmeshed in it.
 The regions where there are few cells within the meshwork are
known as lymph sinus.
 It is lined by reticular cells, fibroblasts and fixed macrophages.
 Cortex
 The cortex of the lymph node is the peripheral portion
underneath the capsule and the subcapsular sinus.
 The subcapsular sinus drains to trabecular sinuses, and then the
lymph flows into the medullary sinuses.

The outer cortex consists mainly of the B cells arranged as

follicles, which may develop a germinal center when
challenged with an antigen, and the deeper cortex mainly
consisting of the T cells.
 There is a zone known as the subcortical zone where T-cells (or
cells that are mainly red) mainly interact with dendritic cells,
and where the reticular network is dense. The predominant site
within the lymph nodes which contain T cells & accessory cells
is also known as paracortex (reticular network)
Medulla
The medulla contains large blood vessels, sinuses and
medullary cords that contain antibody-secreting
plasma cells.

The medullary cords are cords of lymphatic tissue, and

include plasma cells, macrophages, and B cells. The
medullary sinuses (or sinusoids) are vessel-like spaces
separating the medullary cords. Lymph flows into the
medullary sinuses from cortical sinuses, and into
efferent lymphatic vessels. 
 Location of Lymph Nodes
 The size of lymph glands in adults is smaller, as compared
to those in children between the age group 10 - 12.
 Lymph node is located in the lymphatic system, which is
distributed throughout the body. It can be present
independently or in groups.
 About 500 - 600 lymph nodes are present in the human
body.
 Groups of lymph nodes are present in the neck,
collarbone, under the arms (armpit), and groin. Following
is the list of lymph nodes with their placement in the
body.
 Cervical lymph nodes: These lymph nodes are located in the head and
neck region. Basically found deep in the neck, behind the ears and
bottom of the jaw. In total, they are six in number. They draw lymph
from the scalp, face, nasal cavity and pharynx.

 Supraclavicular lymph nodes: Situated along the collarbone or

clavicle, they drain lymph from the parts of the collarbone and the
upper parts of the chest. These nodes can also be considered a part of
the cervical lymph nodes.

 Axillarylymph nodes: These nodes are present in the armpit area.

They are divided into two types, namely, superficial and deep lymph
nodes. They drain lymph from arm, walls of thorax and breast.

 Mediastinal lymph nodes: They are present in the central part of the
chest, between the lungs. It drains from the middle section of chest
cavity, parts of the upper abdomen and lungs.
 Supratrochlear lymph nodes: These nodes are present on the arms
just above the elbow joint. They drain from the fingers, hand on
the ulnar side of the arm and superficial areas of the forearm.

 Mesenteric lymph nodes: - Distributed in the lower abdomen,

they lie close to the small intestine. They drain cecum, jejunum,
ileum, colon and upper part of rectum.

 Inguinal lymph nodes: These nodes are located in the groin area.
They may be superficial or deep lymph nodes. They receive
lymph from the genital areas, buttock, anus, abdominal wall and
legs. 
 Femoral lymph nodes: Located in the upper thigh portion along
the femoral veins. They are immediately below the inguinal
lymph nodes. They drain from some of the genital parts, buttock,
thigh and the medial side of the leg. 
 Popliteal lymph nodes: These lymph nodes are present in the
knee area called popliteal fossa. There are two sets of
popliteal lymph nodes some are present beneath the popliteal
fascia and some are found between the popliteal artery and
the posterior surface of the knee joint. They drain from the
knee, thigh, calf and feet.
Nodes Location Region drain
Superficial
I. Cervical (Supefacial Neck Head and neck
and deep)

ii. Axillary Axilla Upper limbs and breast

iii. Popliteal and Popliteal fossa and groin Lower limbs
inguinal
Deep Nodes
V. Illiac Illiac fossa Pelivic iscera etc
vi. Lumber Close to lumber verterbra Abdominal wall and vicera
Vii. Mesenteric Messentary Alimentary tract and accessory
organ
viii. Hepatic Portal tissue of liver Liver,, gallblader, etc
Ix, Pre aortic Anterior to the abdominal Alimentary tract and acessory
aorta organ
x. Thoracic Broncho- Hilum of lung Lungs
pulmonary group

xi. Intercostals Intercostals Thoracic cavity

The lacteals
The lacteals are the lymph capillary which drain
lymph from the small intestine . About 60% of the
fat absorbed from the small intestine passes into the
lymph capillaries and this high concentration of fat
gives the lymph a milky appearance . Because of
this , lymph entering the thoracic duct is known as
chyle.
 Function of Lymph nodes
  Lymph Collection and Filtration
Lymph is drained and collected from the adjoining parts of the lymph nodes.
To be more precise, the afferent lymphatic vessels deliver unfiltered body
fluid to the lymph node for filtration. These nodes act as filters for disease-
causing agents like bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. The foreign
particles or the disease causing agents collected in the lymph nodes are then
destroyed by the WBCs. The filtered fluid is collected by the efferent
lymphatic vessel, which is then emptied into the cardiovascular system. 

▶ Production of Antibodies
According to medical studies, lymph nodes are the major sites for initiation
of autoimmune responses. Lymph nodes contain lymphocytes, which is a
type of WBC. At the time of infection, in response to the antigen,
lymphocytes make antibodies which target the pathogens and destroy them.
Due to this activity, there is an increase in the production of beta cells which
results in swollen, inflamed, painful and sensitive nodes. Significant change
in their size can be observed during mild infection like cold and life-
threatening condition like cancer. 
The Spleen
 The spleen is a dark purple –colored organ, which lies in
the left hypochondriae region of the abdomen, between
the fundus of the stomch and the diaphragm.
 Its long axis lies in the line of 9th to 10th ribs on the left
hand side .
 The spleen, in healthy adult humans, is approximately 7
centimetres (2.8 in) to 14 centimetres (5.5in) in length 3-
4 cm thick.
 It usually weighs between 150 grams to 200 grams.
 It varies in size and weight during the lifetime of an
individual .And normally spleen is not palpable.
 Organ associated with spleen
 Superiorly and posteriorly- Diaphragm
 Inferiorly- Left colic flexure of the large intestine
 Anteriorly- Fundus of the stomach
 Medially- Pancreas and the left kidney
 Laterally- Separated from 9th , 10th and 11th ribs and intercostals
muscles by the diaphragm.

 ArterySplenic artery
Vein Splenic vein
Nerve Splenic plexus
 The spleen has diaphragmatic and visceral surface.
 The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen is convex, smooth,
and is directed upward, backward. It contains hilum, where
branches of the splenic artery enter the spleen.
 The visceral surface of the spleen is divided by a ridge into
two regions: an anterior or gastric and a posterior or renal.
 The gastric surface is directed forward, upward, and toward
the middle, is broad and concave, and is in contact with the
posterior wall of the stomach.
 The renal surface is directed medial ward and downward. It
is somewhat flattened, considerably narrower than the
gastric surface, and is in relation with the upper part of the
anterior surface of the left kidney and occasionally with the
left suprarenal gland.
Structure
 The spleen has an outer coat of peritoneum , which is
firmly adherent to the internal fibro-elastic coat or splenic
capsule that dips into the organ, forming trabeculae.
 Two kinds of spleenic pulp occupy the interstices of the
reticulum
 Micrograph of spleenic tissue showing the red pulp (red),
white pulp (blue) and a thickened inflamed capusule.
 Red pulp (Mechanical filtration of red blood cells.) It
consists of numerous various sinusoids, containing blood
,separated by a network of perivascular tissue which is
referred to as the spleenic cords. These are so called cord
contains numerous microphages and are the site of intense
phagocytes activity .
 They are also contain numerous lymphocytes, which are
derived from the white pulp.
 The sinusoids are microscopic blood channels. The Kupffer cells
are phagocytic, i.e., capable of ingestion of other cells and of
foreign particles. They also store hemosiderin so that it is available
for the production of hemoglobin, the oxygen-transporting
component of the red blood cell.
 white pulp:- It is consists of periateriolar sheath of
lymphatic tissue with enlargements called spleenic
lymphatic follicles or Malpighian bodies .
 Active immune response through humoral and cell-
mediated pathways. Composed of nodules, called
Malpighian corpuscles. These are composed of "lymphoid
follicles" (or "follicles"), rich in B-lymphocytes.
 They are visible to the naked eye as whitish dots against the
dark red background of the red pulp on the freshly cut
surface of the spleen.
 Functions
1. Destruction of warm out erythrocytes (Phagocytosis):-
Erythrocytes(RBC) are destroyed in the spleen and the breakdown
products are bilirubin, biliverdin and iron . Iron is passed to the
liver via the spleenic and portal veins. Other cellular materials e.g
leukocytes ,platelets and mocrobes are phagocytosed in the spleen.
2. A reservoir for blood :- The spleen can act as a reservior for red
cells , which is discharge into the bloodstream in an emergency
situation.
3. The formation of lymphocytes:- The spleen is formed partly by
lymphatic tissue which produces T lymphocytes and B
lymphocytes.
4. Haemopoiesis(formation of blood cells):- In the foetus , the spleen
is an important haemopoitic organ and platelets are formed in the
red pulp. The white pulp of the mature spleen contributes to the
circulating pool of immuno-compelent lymphocytes
 Thymus glands
 The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the
immune system. Within the thymus, T cells(A small lymphocytes
develop in the thymus it is act as immune systems response to
infected or malignancy cells ) or T lymphocytes mature.
 Anterior view of chest showing location and size of adult thymus
the thymus is of a pinkish-gray color, soft, and lobulated on its
surfaces.
 The thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located
anatomically in the anterior superior mediastinum, in front of the
heart and behind the sternum.
 Histologically, each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a
central , medulla and a peripheral cortex which is surrounded by
an outer capsule. The cortex and medulla play different roles in
the development of T-cells.
 Age Mass
birth about 15 grams
puberty about 35 grams
twenty-five years 25 grams
sixty years less than 15 grams
seventy years as low as 5 grams
 At birth it is about 5 cm in length, 4 cm in breadth, and about 6 mm in
thickness. The organ enlarges during childhood, and atrophies at
puberty.
 Unlike the liver, kidney and heart, for instance, the thymus is at its
largest in children.
 The thymus reaches maximum weight (20 to 37 grams) by the time of
puberty. The thymus of older people is scarcely distinguishable from
surrounding fatty tissue.
 As one ages the thymus slowly shrinks, eventually degenerating into
tiny islands of fatty tissue. By the age of 75 years, the thymus weighs
only 6 grams. In children the thymus is grayish-pink in colour and in
Structure
The thymus consists of two lobes joined by
areolar tissues .The lobes are enclosed by a
capsule which dips into their substances.
Dividing them into lobules that consists of an
irregular branching framework of epithelial cells
and lymphocytes.
Blood supply :- The arteries supplying the thymus are
derived from the internal thoracic artery, and from the
superior thyroid artery and inferior thyroids.

The veins end in the left brachiocephalic vein and in

the thyroid veins.

The nerves are exceedingly minute; they are derived

from the vagi and sympathetic nervous system.
Branches from the descendens hypoglossi and phrenic
reach the investing capsule.
Function
 Lymphocytes are originated from haemocytoblast(stem
cell) on the red bone marrow. The thymus controls
lymphocytes production in both the peripheral and the
central lymphoid organ. The thymus itself is essential for
the maturation of lymphocytes into the cell which is
responsible for cellular maturity, T lymphocytes.
 The maturation of the thymus and other lymphoid tissue is
stimulated by ‘ thyroxin, a hormones secreted by the
epithelial cells that form the framework of the thymus
gland.
Tonsils
 Tonsils are collections of lymphoid tissue facing into the aero
digestive tract. The set of lymphatic tissue known as
Waldeyer's tonsillar ring includes the adenoid tonsil, two tubal
tonsils, two palatine tonsils, and the lingual tonsil.
 Adenoids "pharyngeal tonsils" Roof of pharynx
 Tubal tonsils Roof of pharynx
 Palatine tonsils , situated at either side at the back of the
human throat.
 Lingual tonsils Behind terminal sulcus (tongue)

Development
Tonsils tend to reach their largest size near puberty, and they
gradually undergo atrophy thereafter. However, they are
largest relative to the diameter of the throat in young children.
Functions
 These immuno competent tissues are the immune system's
first line of defense against ingested or inhaled foreign
pathogens.
 Tonsils have on their surface specialized antigen capture cells
called M cells that allow for the uptake of antigens produced
by pathogens.
 These M cells then alert the underlying B cells and T cells in
the tonsil that a pathogen is present and an immune response is
stimulated.
 B cells are activated and proliferate in areas called germinal
centers in the tonsil. These germinal centers are places where
B memory cells are created and secretary antibody (IgA) is
produced.
Peyer's patches
 Peyer's patches are organized lymphoid nodules, named
after the 17th-century Swiss anatomist Johann Conrad
Peyer.
 They are aggregations of gut associated lymphoid tissue
that are usually found in the lowest portion of the small
intestine, the ileum, in humans
 As such, they differentiate the ileum from the duodenum
and jejunum. The duodenum can be identified by
Brunner's glands. The jejunum has neither Brunner's
glands nor Peyer's patches
 Peyer's patches are observable as elongated thickenings of
the intestinal epithelium measuring a few centimeters in
length.
 About 30 are found in humans.
 Microscopically, Peyer’s patches appear as oval or round
lymphoid follicles (similar to lymph nodes)
Function
 Peyer's patches importance for the immune surveillance
of the intestinal lumen and in facilitating the generation
of the immune response within the mucosa.

 Peyer's patches thus act for the gastrointestinal system

much as the tonsils act for the respiratory system,
trapping foreign particles, surveilling them, and
destroying them.

 Peyer's patches are covered by a special epithelium that

contains specialized cells called microfold cells (M
cells) which sample antigen directly from the lumen
Immunoglobulin(Antibody) and its types
An antibody is define as a protein that is
produced by B lymphocytes in response
to the presence of an antigen.
Antibody is gamma globulin in nature
and it is also called immunoglobulin(Ig).
Immunoglobulin's form 20% of the total
protein.
Antibodies enters almost all the tissues of
the body.
Property IgG Ig A IgM IgE IgD

Heavy chain γ α μ ε δ

Major feature Crosses Found in Produced by Found in Present on

placenta body B cell, lungs, skin lymphocyte
barrier secretion largest and cell surface
milk , tear antibody mucousmem
etc Most brane
abundant.

Function Complement Defence Complement Involve in Recognition

fixation mechanism fixation allergic of antigen by
in external reaction B
secretion lymphocyte
Questions
 Explain the lymphatic system and write the function of
lymphatic system.
 Define the lymph node and explain the function of lymph
nodes.
 Write the structure and function of spleen.

Short notes
 Lymph capillary
 Lymph vessels
 Payers patches
 Tonsils
 Thymus gland