QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES TO

MANAGEMENT RESEARCH
SESSION-I
AGENDA
• An Introduction to Quantitative Research

• Quantitative or Qualitative?

• Types of Quantitative Research

• Quantitative Approach

• Validity Issues
 QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM
• “an inquiry into a social or human problem based on testing a
theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and
analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine
whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true.”
(Creswell, J. Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Sage: 1994.) 

"a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data

are utilized to obtain information about the world"
(Burns & Grove, as cited by Cormack, 1991, p. 140)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
STUDIES
• Quantitative research is about quantifying the relationships
between variables.
• We measure them, and
• construct statistical models to explain what we observed.
• The researcher knows in advance what he or she is looking for.
• Goal: Prediction, control, confirmation, test hypotheses.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
STUDIES

• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are
collected.
• Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive -- it tests
theory. This is in contrast to most qualitative research which
tends to be inductive --- it generates theory
• The researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the
subject matter.
 QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE?
• Quantitative
• involves statistical analysis of
superficial data collected from a
relatively large and representative
sample of a known population
• data captured using questionnaire
• analytical techniques include
frequency distributions, graphs,
central tendency & dispersion,
contingency tables, Likert scales &
semantic differentials, regression &
correlation, etc.
• describing/measuring
• positivism
• Qualitative
• involves non-numerical
analysis of detailed information
derived from a single case or
small sample, how-ever
unrepresentative of population
at large
• data captured from interviews,
focus groups, participant
observation & documents
• analytical techniques include
categorisation, content &
semiotic analysis, etc.
• explaining/understanding
• phenomenology
 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The purposes of research can be categorized as:

 Description (fact finding): Statistical Surveys, Sampling, Interviews
 Exploration (looking for patterns): Statistical Surveys, Historical Analysis
 Analysis (explaining why or how): Case Studies, Attitude Surveys, Observations,
Statistical Surveys, Historical Analysis
 Prediction (forecasting the likelihood of particular events): Identifying and / or
defining measurable (quantifiable) variables and manipulating them to cause
measurable.

 Problem Solving (improvement of current practice): Action-research spiral:

observe  reflect  plan  act  observe  reflect  plan  act ………
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

• Seeks to accurately describe current or past phenomena - to

answer such questions as:

a) What is the absentee rate for particular lectures?

b) What is the pass rate for particular courses?

c) What is the dropout rate on particular degree

programmes?
 ANALYTICAL/CAUSAL RESEARCH
• Seeking to explain the reasons behind a particular occurrence
by discovering causal relationships. Once causal relationships
have been discovered, the search then shifts to factors that
can be changed (variables) in order to influence the chain of
causality. Typical questions are:

a) Why good service quality leads to higher customer

satisfaction?
b) What factors might account for the high drop-our
rate on a particular degree programme?
 PREDICTIVE RESEARCH
• Seeks to forecast the likelihood of particular phenomena
occurring in given circumstances. It seeks to answer such
questions as:

a) Will changing the start time achieve a higher attendance

rate at our lectures?
b) Will introducing anonymous marking reduce the gender
imbalance in the achievement of 1st class degrees?

c) Will increasing the weighting for course work encourage

students to adopt deep learning strategies?
 PROBLEM SOLVING RESEARCH /
ACTION RESEARCH
• Action-research is a form of problem solving based on
increasing knowledge through observation and reflection,
then following this with a deliberate intervention intended to
improve practice.

– Educational action-research describes a family of activities

in curriculum development, professional development,
school improvement programmes, and systems planning
and policy development.
– Participants in the action being considered are intricately
involved with all of these activities.
HYPOTHESIS

• Hypothesis = an idea that will be tested through

systematic investigation

• A researcher’s prediction of what outcomes will occur

• Fits experimental research, also called “Hypothesis

Testing”
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL
MODEL

• A variable is a quantity or characteristic of interest that is

allowed to change within a particular problem (students’

mathematics mark, travel time)

• A parameter is fixed for a particular problem.

• An assumption is something we accept to be true for the

model we are working on.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
• The variable that is controlled or manipulated by the researcher
• The variable that is thought to have some effect upon the
dependent variable

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

 That which is measured

 The outcome

 That which is influenced or affected by the independent variable

 HOW DO WE CONSTRUCT VARIABLES?

• In order to “Operationalize” our variables we must first define

them and then select a means to construct them. We do this by
connecting concepts to observations.
• This requires choosing a level of measurement.
 Pollock’s model CONCEPT

CONCEPTUAL
DEFINITION

OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION

VARIABLE
(A STATE THAT TAKES
DIFFERENT ATTRIBUTES
O VALUES)
 MEASUREMENT FUNDAMENTALS

 A key difference is that normal science deals with concepts that

are well defined and to great extent standardized measures (e.g.
speed, distance, volume, weight, size, etc.)

 On the contrary the social science often uses concepts that are ill
defined and therefore the standardization in terms of how it is
measured varies or there is little agreement (e.g. social class,
development, poverty, etc.)

 Statistics cannot be used until we understand the “the

fundamental nature” of measurement

 Thus, our goal is that our measurements of the different concepts

are valid or match as much as possible the “real” world
 MEASUREMENT

• Measurement is about assigning a value or a score to an

observation.
• Measurement is the representation of
• type,
• size or
• quantity by numbers.

• How we work with data will depend on the level of

measurement achieved.
• Measurement can be categorized as:
nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio
DEFINING THE DATA TYPE
 NOMINAL

 Nominal: These variables consist of categories that are non-ordered.

For example, race or ethnicity is one variable used to classify people.
 A simple categorical variable is binary or dichotomous (1/0 or
yes/no). For example, did a councilwomen vote for the ordinance
change or not?
 When used as an independent variable, it is often referred to as a
“dummy” variable.
 When used as a dependent variable, the outcome of some
phenomenon is either present or not.
 ORDINAL

 Ordinal: These variables are also categorical, but we

can say that some categories are higher than others.
For example, income tax brackets, social class, levels
of education etc.
 However, we cannot measure the distance between
categories, only which is higher or lower.
 Hence, we cannot say that someone is twice as educated
as someone else.
 Can also be used as a dependent variable.
 INTERVAL

 Interval: Variables of this type are called scalar or

index variables in the sense they provide a scale or
index that allows us to measure between levels. We
cannot only measure which is higher or lower, but
how much so.
 Distance is measured between points on a scale with
even units.
 Good example is temperature based on Fahrenheit or
Celsius.
 RATIO

 Ratio: Similar to interval level variables in that

it can measure the distance between two points,
but can do so in absolute terms.
 Ratio measures have a true zero, unlike interval
measures.
 For example, one can say that someone is twice as
rich as someone else based on the value of their
assets since to have no money is based on a starting
point of zero.
UNITS OF ANALYSIS

• Individuals
• People
• Places
• Groups
• Institutions
• Nations
• Programs
 INTERNAL VALIDITY

 Are there other causes for what I am observing?

 If so, a study will lack internal validity if it cannot rule out

plausible alternative explanations.

 Can the outcome (diminished corruption) be fully attributed

to the program in place (tougher sanctions)?
 INTERNAL VALIDITY
The outcome
Our Cause (s) Results

X Y

•Alternative Explanations
•Rival Hypothesis
•Threats to validity

History, Maturation, Testing, Instrumentation, selection, mortality, etc.

 EXTERNAL VALIDITY

 How well does my study or sample relate to the

general population?

 In other words, am I able to generalize to other

population, places, across time?
 EXTERNAL VALIDITY

The outcome
Our Cause (s)
Results

X Y

•Alternative Explanations
•Rival Hypothesis
•Threats to validity

Selection * treatment History * Treatment Settings & Treatment

 IN CLASS EXERCISE

Each year students struggle to choose an university based

on a number of different criteria. Of which cost of living is
the most important one.

In groups, think how you can design your research to

analyse cost of living.
 NEXT SESSION ON QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

• Sampling methods

• Surveys and Questionnaires

• Statistical Methods
READING
• Lawrence A. and Francis B., 2006, Customer retention
management processes: A quantitative study, European
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 40 No. 1/2, pp. 83-99

References
 Easterby-Smith et al., 1991, Management Research: An
Introduction, the chapters on Quantitative Methods
 Saunders et al., Research Methods for Business Students,
5th edition
 Creswell, J. (2007), Research design: Qualitative,
Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd Edition