Properties and Standard Testing

Chapter 4

Professor Joe Greene

CSU, CHICO
www.csuchico.edu/~jpgr
eene/itec144

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Properties and Standard Testing
• Materials and Test Specimens
• Short term conventional testing
– Tensile, flexural, compression, torsion, shear,
– Tear, biaxial stress
• Hardness
– Rockwell, Shore, ball, Barcol
• Friction, Wear, and Abrasion
• Impact
• Cyclic loading
– Dynamic testing and fatigue
• Long term static loading
– Creep and static fatigue
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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Properties and Standard Testing
• High temperature softening
– Heat deflection temperature and Vicat softening point
– Transition temperature and Dynamic mechanical testing
• Low temperature stiffening
– Stiffness, static and dynamic brittleness
• Flammability and combustion
• Electrical properties
• Thermal properties

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 Mechanical Test Considerations
• Principle factors are in three main areas
– manner in which the load is applied
– condition of material specimen at time of test
– surrounding conditions (environment) during testing
• Tests classification- load application
– kind of stress induced. Single load or Multiple loads
– rate at which stress is developed: static versus dynamic
– number of cycles of load application: single versus fatigue
• Primary types of loading
shear
tension compression
torsion

flexure
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 Testing Procedure
• Tensile tests yield a tensile strain, yield strength, and a yield stress
• Tensile modulus or Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity
– Slope of stress/strain
– Yield stress
– point where plastic
deformation occurs
Yield stress
– Some materials do
1000 psi
not have a distinct yield point

us
so an offset method is usedStress Yield strength

dul

mo
pe=
Slo

0.002 in/in
Strain

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Expected Results
• Stress is measured load / original cross-sectional area.
• True stress is load / actual area.
• True stress is impractical to use since area is changing.
• Engineering stress or stress is most common.
• Strain is elongation / original length.
• Modulus of elasticity is stress / strain in the linear region
• Note: the nominal stress (engineering) stress equals true stress, except where large plastic
deformation occurs.
• Ductile materials can endure a large strain before rupture
• Brittle materials endure a small strain before rupture
• Toughness is the area under a stress strain curve

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 Rockwell Hardness
• Hardness is a function of the degree of indentation of the test
piece by action of an indenter under a given static load
(similar to the Brinell test)
• Rockwell test has a choice of 3 different loads and three
different indenters
• The loads are smaller and the indentation is shallower than the
Brinell test
• Rockwell test is applicable to testing materials beyond the
scope of the Brinell test
• Rockwell test is faster because it gives readings that do not
require calculations and whose values can be compared to
tables of results (ASTM E 18)
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 Rockwell Test Description
• Specially designed machine that applies load through a
system of weights and levers
– Indenter can be 1/16 in hardened steel ball, 1/8 in steel ball, or 120° diamond
cone with a somewhat rounded point (brale)
– Hardness number is an arbitrary value that is inversely related to the depth of
indentation
– Scale used is a function of load applied and the indenter
• Rockwell B- 1/16in ball with a 100 kg load
• Rockwell C- Brale is used with the 150 kg load
– Operation
• Minor load is applied (10 kg) to set the indenter in material
• Dial is set and the major load applied (60 to 100 kg)
• Hardness reading is measured
• Rockwell hardness includes the value and the scale letter

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Rockwell Values
Scale Indenter Applied Load
(kg)
A Brale 60
B 1/16 in 100
C Brale 150
D Brale 100
E 1/8 in 100
F 1/16 in 60
G 1/16 in 150

•B Scale: Materials of medium hardness (0 to 100HR B) Most Common

•C Scale: Materials of harder materials (> 100HR B) Most Common
•Rockwell scales divided into 100 divisions with each division (point of
hardness) equal to 0.002mm in indentation. Thus difference between a
HRB51 and HRB54 is 3 x 0.002 mm - 0.006 mm indentation 9
•The higher the number theCopyright
harder theGreene
Joseph number2001
 Hardness
• Hardness is measured as the resistance to penetration of a
material by an indentor (impressor) which can have a
variety of shapes.
• Shore hardness: Fig 4.21 and Fig 4.23
– Associated with a Durometer instrument
• Features a pin-shaped indentors of two types (A or D) which protrude from
a flat surface and loaded by a calibrated spring.
• Instrument is pressed against the polymer specimen until the surfaces come
in close contact.
• “A” scale with a blunt indentor is suitable for soft materials, e.g., elastomers
and covers the range from 20A-95A
• “D” scale with a pointed indentor is intended for harder materials, e.g., soft
plastics and covers a range from 40D-90D.
• Soft materials: 20A-30A are for rubber bands and soft erasers.
• Semi-rigid materials: 45A is for LDPE, 65D for HDPE, and 55A-70A for
tire treads.
• Hard materials: 90A for typewriter rolls. 10
• Very hard materials: 90D for Joseph
Copyright bowling balls.
Greene 2001
 Hardness
• Barcol hardness: Fig 4.21 and Fig 4.24
– For rigid plastics, e.g., fiber reinforced plastics and composites.
– Barcol (Barber and Coleman) impressor uses an indentor similar to
that used in the Shore D method, except for a flat tip instead of a
rounded one.
• Minimum recommended test specimen thickness is about 1.5mm
– Indentor protrudes from a surface that is pressed against the
polymer specimen.
• Indentor is loaded with a calibrated spring and its penetration is related to a
Barcol hardness number that is on a dial on the tester.
• Usual range is about 50B-90B
• Barcol 60B is equivalent to Shore 80D and to Rockwell M100

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Friction, Wear, and Abrasion
• Tribology: study of the frictional characteristics of materials
– Applications include roller bearing, bushings, bearing pads, cams,
piston rings, and gears.
• Coefficient of friction
– Primary tribological characteristic is the coefficient of
friction between two surfaces.
• The coefficient, µ, is defined as
– The ratio of the sliding force, Fs, to the normal force, FN.
– The ratio of the shear stress, S, to the normal pressure, PN.
– Well-defined for metallic materials
– Is significant for polymers and polymers with another material
• Two types
– Static (starting) coefficient is generally higher than,
– Dynamic (sliding) coefficient

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Friction, Wear, and Abrasion
• Factors affecting friction
– Dynamic friction- Typical testing velocity is 25 cm/sec (50 ft/min)
– Typical normal or contact pressure, PN, is about 0.2 MPa (30psi)
– Surface finish and Lubricants affects friction
– Additives can reduce friction, including
• Fluorocarbon polymers, bronze, brass, graphite, molybdenum sulfide
– Method for determining static and dynamic coefficients of friction
• An inclined plate (Figure 4.25) with gravity being responsible for the sliding
force as well as the normal force
• Values for plastics range from 0.05 for PTFE to 2.5 for rubbers
• Engineering plastics used for frictional applications (PMO and PA) have
values less than 0.3

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 Friction, Wear, and Abrasion
• Wear

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 Energy Capacity
• Energy Capacity: ability of a
material to absorb and store
energy. Energy is work. Stress

• Energy = (force) x (distance)
• Energy capacity is the area
under the stress-strain curve.
Strain 

• Hysteresis: energy that is lost

after repeated loadings. The Stress

loading exceeds the elastic limit.

Strain 15
Elastic
Copyright Joseph Greene 2001 strain Inelastic strain
 Impact Testing
• Two Basic Methods- notched or unnotched samples
– Izod (vertical beam)
– Charpy (horizontal beam)

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Cyclic loading
• Tensile, flexural, compression, torsion, shear,
• Tear, biaxial stress

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 Long Term Static Loading: Creep
• Creep
– Measures the effects of long-term application of loads that are below the elastic limit if the
material being tested.
– Creep is the plastic deformation resulting from the application of a long-term load.
– Creep is affected by temperature
• Creep procedure
– Hold a specimen at a constant elevated temperature under a fixed applied stress and
observe the strain produced.
– Test that extend beyond 10% of the life expectancy of the material in service are preferred.
– Mark the sample in two locations for a length dimension.
– Apply a load
– Measure the marks over a time period and record deformation.

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Creep Results
• Creep versus time
Fixed

l0 lF

Tertiary Creep
Constant
Load Creep
(in/in) Secondary Creep
Primary Creep

Time (hours)

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Short Term Conventional Testing
• Tear
– Flexible plastics and elastomers often fail in a tearing
mode and their resistance to tearing is often inadequately
reflected in tensile strength
– Standard tear tests involve a variety of test specimen
geometries (angle tear, trouser tear, etc.) Figure 4.12
• Conducted on a Universal testing machine or specialized equip
• Involve a cut, slit, or nick which is made before the test.
• Biaxial stress
– Developed when a circular diaphragm, pipe, or container
is subjected to pressure (Fig 4.13)
• Basis for quick-burst tests.
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• The pressure at failure (rupture), or the stress is measured
Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 High Temperature Softening
• High Temperature Softening
– HDT

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Low Temperature Stiffening
• Low temperature stiffening
– Stiffness, static and dynamic brittleness

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 Electrical Properties
• Electrical properties
• Thermal properties

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 Thermal Testing
• Five Thermal Properties
– Melting Point
– Heat deflection temperature
– Vicant Softening Temperature
– Flamability
– Oxygen Index

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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Thermal Testing
• Five Thermal Properties
– Melting Point, Tm, and Glass Transition, Tg (DSC)
• Measures the temperature difference, and energy necessary to
establish a “zero” temperature difference, between as sample and a
reference sample. Figures 10-16 a and b
– Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT)
• 3-Point bending test on a sample in a temperature environment.
• Temperature at which the sample deflects at specified amount.
– Vicant Softening Temperature
• Similar to the HDT test except the sample is not supported, but
placed flat at the base of the apparatus, which is placed in a
temperature environment.
• Temp is raised until needle penetrates sample a given amount.
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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 Thermal Testing
• Five Thermal Properties
– Flammability
• Measures the condition of the sample as it is exposed to an
ignition source. Dripping, smoking, or other condition is
recorded, as well as the speed and distance the flame travels.
– Limited Oxygen Index (LOI)
• Measure the minimum amount of oxygen that will support
flaming combustion of a plastic product.
• Specimen is ignited with a flame source, then the source is
removed. The oxygen level is adjusted upward or downward to
determine the minimum level that will sustain burning.
• The level is stated as the percentage of oxygen contained in the
airstream
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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
 DSC and TGA
• DSC Measures
– Tg
– Tm
– Crystallinity
• Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) Measures
– Filler content, resin content, additives content
– Place small specimen in a chamber that is part of the TGA
apparatus
– The chamber weighs sample as it is slowly heated to 1000F and
sample decomposes
– As the sample is heated the sample slowly burns and the weight
is reduced and measured.
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Copyright Joseph Greene 2001