Intercultural and

Global Communication
 Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able
to:
• Define culture;
• Identify different dimensions of culture;
• Explain how these dimensions of culture
affect the communication situation;
• Apply practical use of these dimensions in
improving the quality of communication;
• Identify ways/guidelines in communicating
under a diverse intercultural setting; and
• Identify barriers in intercultural
communication and how to resolve them.
“What does it mean to belong to a
culture, and when you identify
yourself as a member of a larger
group, such as culture, to hat
exactly do you belong?.”
—Duck & McMahan, 2009
01 Thinking
About Culture
 Cultures are created through
communication; that is
communication is the means of human
interaction through which cultural
We usually think of a culture as basically characteristics, whether customs,
roles, rules, rituals, laws or other
geographical or ethnic. patterns are created or shared.

-the East and the West, majority and minority.

-Yet, significant differences exist between societies in the world. This is
obvious as we have different languages, we dress differently, and use different
nonverbal systems.

A better way to see the relationship between language and culture:

Culture does not create different
communication (patterns) but different
communication creates culture.
To understand this further:

As these two people converse, they are

already creating a culture.
If another person engages
communication with them, s/he will
influence their culture to change.

When they interact regularly, they will

have their own set of distinguishing
history, patterns, customs, and rituals.
These also evolve over time.
We think of culture as something that other people
have.
-these are unusual clothes, strange foods, odd customs, doing strange things
with coconut or tulips, etc.
-as they are strange to you, you come across as strange to them, too.

Believing that your culture is the benchmark of all

cultures is called ethnocentric bias.

Everyday communication deeply affects who you are,

and a lot of it is cultural. It runs so deep within your
routine talk and relational performance that you don’t
recognize it at first.
 a. Culture as Geography or Ethnicity

Cross-cultural
Communication
Generally compares the communication
styles and patterns of people from very
different cultural/social structures, such as
nation-states.
Intercultural Communication
Deals with how people from these
cultural/social structures speak to one another
and what difficulties and differences they
encounter, over and above the language they
speak. (Gudykunst & Kim, 1984).
For example:
Cross-cultural Communication
Seki, et al. (2002), found that the Japanese placed more stress than the
Americans on directly verbalizing their feelings when considering intimacy
with mother, father, and same-sex best friends.
On the other hand, Americans placed more value than the Japanese on indirectly
verbalizing their feelings for each other.
Intercultural Communication
When a Japanese person talks to an American and notices some nuances on the
expression of their feelings.

In Japan, it is impolite to summon someone with the moving-index-

finger gesture as is done in the West to mean, “Come here.” In
Japan, you should hold your palm facing downward and move all
your fingers at once.
 b. Transacting Cultures
What does it mean to belong to a culture?
The defining element is that you belong to a set of people who share meanings and styles of
speaking, system of beliefs, and customs. You live your life in the context of a communicating set
of individuals who transact a universe of thought and behavior that makes certain ways of
treating people. These groups come together and are recognized once they are labeled and some
consistency is observed in their behavior and communication

Your daily talk is what makes culture and values transaction

easier.

Culture as a meaning system. Any group with shared

meaning is considered as ‘culture.’
Jeepney driver, workmates, a whole class with
different teachers– all of them can be considered as
different cultures.
Edward T. Hall’s Cultural Iceberg
Model
● The common mistake learners make: to
identify culture with just what they see.
● Culture is more than what meets the eye.
 02
Dimensions of Culture
 Cultures are not
synonymous with countries.
Cultures do not respect
political boundaries.
 Jandt’s (2010) definitions of culture are as follows:
• It is a community or population sufficiently large enough to be self-
sustaining.
• The totality of that group’s thought, experiences, and patterns of behavior
and its concepts, values and assumptions about life that guide behavior and
how those evolve with contact with other cultures.

Hofstede (1994) classified four elements of culture:

• Symbols – verbal and non-verbal language.
• Rituals – socially essential collective activities within a culture.
• Values – feelings not open for discussion within a culture about what is good or bad,
beautiful or ugly, normal or abnormal, etc.
• Heroes – real or imaginary people who serve as behavior models within a culture.
Dimensions of Culture
As presented by Duck and
McMahan (2009):
 a. Context:
• Total environment or speech where interaction take place (Samovar &
Porter, 2004).
• High-context societies view spoken words
as much less important for people to
indicate relationships between the people
communicating.
• Everything has meaning, a person’s societal
status, attachments on a person’s religious
beliefs, connections, etc.
• In such societies, people give major priority
to relationships between family, friends, and
associates. (Padrino system may be existing
among them.)
• Low-context cultures the message itself is
the meaning.
• They place high value on having well-
structured argument or a well-delivered
presentation.
• People try to separate their relationships
from the messages and to focus on the
details and logic.
• Detailed info must be given to provide
relevant context, and only info presented this
way counts as relevant to the message.
 Context: C.B. Halverson’s Cultural Context Inventory
Tendencies in: High-context society
Association • Relationships build slowly and depend on trust.
• Productivity depends on relationships and the
group process.
• An individual’s identity is rooted in groups.
• Social structure and authority are centralized.
Interaction • Nov-verbal elements are significant.
• Verbal message are indirect, communication is
seen as an art form.
• Disagreement is personalized.
• People are sensitive to conflict expressed in
someone else’s nonverbal communication.
Low-context society
• Relationships begin and end quickly.
• Productivity depends on procedures and
goals.
• The identity of individuals is rooted in
themselves and their achievements.
• Social structure is decentralized.
• Non-verbal elements are not significant.
• Verbal messages are explicit, communication
is seen as exchanging information.
• Disagreements are depersonalized, the focus
is on rational (not personal) solutions.
• An individual can be explicit about another
person’s bothersome behavior.
 Context: C.B. Halverson’s Cultural Context Inventory
Tendencies in: High-context society Low-context society
Territoriality • Space is communal. • Space is compartmentalized.
Temporality • Everything has its own time. • Events and tasks are scheduled.
• Time is not easily scheduled. • Change is fast.
• Change is slow. • Time is a commodity to be spent or saved.
• One’s time is one’s own.
Learning • Multiple sources of information are used. • One source of information is used.
• Learning is from general to specific. • Thinking process is from general to specific.
• Learning occurs by observing others as they • Individual orientation is preferred.
model or demonstrate and then practicing. • Speed is valued.
• Groups are preferred.
• Accuracy is valued.
 b. Collectivism/Individualism
• Some cultures stress togetherness (collectivism) and some stress
individuality (individualism).

• Collectivist culture place greater emphasis
on the whole group, stressing common
concerns and acting for the common good.
• Emphasis is on your role in a system rather
than your unique qualities as individual.
• Individualist cultures focus on the individual
person and his/her personal dreams, goals,
achievements, and right to make choices.
 c. Time
• Different societies’ attitudes toward time diverge as well.

• Monochronic time view is focused on punctuality
and time is considered a commodity.
• Time is gold (or money).
• As time is precious, being late is offensive, not
following through time tables is a sign of
unprofessionalism, etc.
• People usually do not multi-task as they find multi-
tasking inefficient use of time (focus is divided.)
• Answering phone calls during a face to face
conversation is trait of these cultures, too.
• Polychronic time view has a more relaxed
attitude to time.
• They see time as an open-ended or rotation
of season.
• ‘Fashionably late’ may be a way not to show
huge enthusiasm in the event.
• People tend to multi-task.
• Adherence to time is considered as childish
impatience (Calero, 2005).

Of course, you will encounter some problems when dealing with a

person who views time differently than you do. Ethnocentric bias,
though not extreme, may still be present in you.
 c. Time
• Different societies’ attitudes toward time diverge as well.

Polychronic cultures tend to multi-task. For the family in the A monochronic society places emphasis in speed and punctuality
picture, the relationship shared by one another is of primary plus the rapid and efficient accomplishment of task. The lady
importance and the task of finishing dinner is just secondary to eating alone focuses on the completion of task – eating, not
relationship built as they eat. establishing a relationship thru dining out.
 d. Conflict

Cultures can also be distinguished

according to their understanding and
approach to conflict, which involves real
incompatibilities of processes,
understandings, and viewpoints between
people.
 d. Conflict
Conflict-as-opportunity cultures tend to be
individualist, such as the United States. This is
based on four assumptions (Martin and
Nakayama, 2007):
• Conflict is a normal, useful process.
• All issues are subject to change through
negotiation.
• Direct confrontation and conciliation is
valued.
• Conflict is necessary renegotiation of an
implied contract – a redistribution of
opportunity, release of tensions, and renewal
of relationship.
Conflict-as-destructive cultures tend to be
collectivist, such as many Asian cultures. This is
also based on four assumptions (Martin and
Nakayama, 2007):
• Conflict is a destructive disturbance of peace.
• The social system should not be adjusted to
meet the needs of the members; rather,
members should adapt to established values.
• Confrontations are destructive and ineffective.
• Disputants should be disciplined.
 How to address conflict?
People generally engage in one of the five styles of conflict management (Rahim, 1993; Ting-Toomey,
2004):
a. Dominating styles involve forcing one’s will on another to satisfy individual desires regardless of
negative relational consequences. E.g. You and your friend decide to order a pizza, and as you call
in the order, your friend mentions desire for pepperoni. You would rather have sausage and reply,
“Too bad, I’m making the call and we are having sausage.”
b. Integrating styles necessitate a great del of open discussion about the conflict at hand to reach a
solution that completely satisfies everyone involved. E.g. You and your friend differ on what pizza
topping you would like, so you both openly discuss your positions and the options available until
you reach a solution that fulfills both of your desire – perhaps getting half and half.
c. Compromising styles are often confused with the integrating styles because a solution is reached
through following discussion of the conflict. However, making a compromise demands that
everyone must give something up to reach a solution, and as a result, people never feel fully
satisfied.
 How to address conflict?
Returning to the pizza dilemma, you and your friend discuss the conflict and decide to get
mushrooms instead of sausage or peperoni.

d. Obliging styles involve giving up one’s position to satisfy another’s. This style of
conflict management emphasizes areas of agreement and deemphasizes areas of
disagreement. On the pizza dilemma, you probably mention that the important thing is
you both want pizza and then agree to order pepperoni instead of sausage.
e. Avoiding style is just that people avoid conflict entirely either by failing to
acknowledge its existence or by withdrawing from a situation when it arises. So on the
pizza dilemma, your friend expresses a desire for pepperoni on that pizza and even
though you really want sausage, you indicate that pepperoni is find and place the order.
Dimensions of Culture
As presented by Geert
Hofstede (1980):
a. Individualism vs.
Collectivism
 a. Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualist culture:
• Interest of the individual prevails over the
interest of the group.
• Ties between people are loose.
• People look after themselves and their
families.
• Goals are set with minimal consideration
given to groups outside a person’s family.
• Individualist is more socially distant.
• Has direct styles of communication.
Collectivist culture:
• Interest of the group over individual’s.
• People are integrated into cohesive groups that
usually last a lifetime with unquestioning
loyalty.
• Other group’s opinions matter when setting
goals.
• Emphasis on relationships among people.
• Stress interdependent activities and
suppressing individual aims for the group’s
welfare.
• Has indirect styles of communication.
 b. Masculinity vs. Femininity

Masculine cultures: Feminine cultures:

• Those that strive for maximal distinction
between what women and men are expected to
do.
• They place high values on traits like
assertiveness, competition and material
success.
• Those that permit more overlapping of social
roles for sexes.
• They place high value on traits like quality of
life first, interpersonal relationships, and
concern for the weak.

It is important to understand that these traits apply to

both women and men, and as humans from different
families, we carry maybe percentages of these traits.
 c. Power Distance
Hofstede (1997), as mentioned in Jandt, (2010) defines power distance as, “the extent to
which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and
accept that power is distributed unequally.

High Power Distance Cultures

• e.g. Children are expected to
display respect for those of
higher status.
• The extent where power,
prestige, and wealth are
distributed within a culture.
• Concentrated power in the
hand of a few.
• Authoritarian nations.
 d. Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people in a culture feel threatened by
uncertain or unknown situations. Hofstede (1997) explains that this feeling is
expressed through nervous stress and in need for predictability or for written or
unwritten rules.

High/strong uncertainty avoidance cultures: Low/weak uncertainty avoidance:

• Active, aggressive, emotional, compulsive,
security seeking, and intolerant
• Students from this culture also expect their
teachers to be experts who have all the answer
(as they dislike researching on their own)
• In the workplace, there is an inner need to
work hard, need for rules precision and
punctuality.
• Contemplative, less aggressive, unemotional,
relaxed, accepting of personal risks and
relatively tolerant.
• Students in this culture accept teachers who
admit to not knowing all the answer.
• In the workplace, employees only work hard
when need. There are no rules more than
necessary and precision and punctuality have
to be learned.
 e. Task Vs. Social Orientation
Task Orientation:
• Focus heavily on getting the job done.
• Make team more competent by having up-to-
date trainings.
• Members are concerned about individual
success.
Social Orientation:
• Concerned about the members and their
smooth functioning as a team.
• Focus on more collective concerns:
cooperative problem solving, a friendly
atmosphere, a good physical working
condition, etc.
Reference:
Agustin, R. et al. (2018). Communication in Multicultural Contexts. M
Muntinlupa City: Panday-Lahi Publishing House,
Inc.