Shipboard Familiarization

For Cadets
 Objective

At the end of the course, trainees will be able to:

•Familiarize with structured approach handling by

applying the best operational practices
•Understand anchor handling principles, operations and
functions
•Improve compliance, safety and environmental
performances
•Avoid mistakes and common day-to-day pitfalls of
anchor operations
1 The Bridge
1.1 Layout of Bridge
1.2 Navigational Equipment in General

The officer of the watch continues to be responsible for

the safety and navigation of the vessel despite the
presence of the Master or any other officer on the
bridge, until he has been taking over. This must be
carried out with a clear statement by the reliever and a
clear acknowledgement by the relieved.
The Master should ensure that following data are
displayed and directly available on the bridge
throughout the voyage:

• The actual draught of the vessel permanently

adjusted for the change of ballast condition
Self-support

Workstations, panels, cabinets, etc., are to be

secured to a solid foundation with sides and back
suitably protected.
Configuration of Devices
 
Alarms, displays and control devices are to be
arranged in a functional and logical manner to allow
the operator an easy and clear means of
identification of each of the components or systems
included therein.
Instruments and Controls
 
Instruments and controls are to be designed to
permit easy and correct reading by day and night and
so fitted as to minimize glare or reflection or being
obscured by strong light.
• Digital Readout
• Circular Scale
• Linear Scale
• Linear Scale
• Mechanical Control
• Light Contrast
• Illumination and Lighting
1.3 Preparation For Departure

Steering Gear

Sailing time

The chief officer will have posted a provisional

sailing time shortly after arrival at the unloading
dock.
When the progress of the cargo discharge permits a
better estimate of sailing time, the chief officer will
advise the master, who will authorize the posting of
the revised time. This should be done six hours
ahead of the previous or new sailing time
(whichever is earlier).
Crew check

Every ship should be ready in all respects before

departing for sea, and the most important aspect of
those preparations is having a complete crew on
board. One hour before departure, a deck officer will
be assigned to check that the crew is complete.
The master must then decide if the ship can proceed
without the missing individual. A ship cannot sail
without its radio officer, but almost any other
position can be covered by qualified personnel
standing extended watches.
Stowaway and contraband search

In any port where stowaways and/or contraband may

be smuggled aboard the ship, a thorough search of the
vessel must be made before departure. While
stowaways can be a nuisance to the master and
owners, the greater problem is smuggling of drugs.
Embarking the pilot

After the equipment checks are complete, contact the

chief officer and determine the vessel's departure
draft. Enter the draft in the log book and record it on
the pilot's information sheet.
Main deck preparations

During the ballasting operation, the main deck is

prepared for getting under way. Cargo hoses or arms
are disconnected and the ship's manifold blanks are
installed. The manifold containment trough under the
manifold must be properly transferred to the slop tank
or another cargo tank.
 Familiarization
2 with Bridge
Equipment
 19

2.1 Very High Frequency (VHF)

•A band of radio frequencies falling between 30 and 300

megahertz.

* The typical VHF antenna is an omni directional

antenna radiating the radio signals in all directions. The
VHF communication system is also called a line-of-sight
communication system,
20
 21

A standard
handheld
maritime VHF,
mandatory on
larger vessels
under the
GMDSS rules
 22

A classical maritime VHF set

 23

A portable VHF which

is both ip67, GMDSS
and ATEX approved.
 24

A VHF set and a VHF channel 70 DSC set, the DSC

on top, both produced by Sailor
 25

2.2 Medium Wave Band (MF)

• The medium wave band (MF)

consists of frequencies
between 1605 and 4000 kHz.
• This band is also called the
coast telephony band.
 26

High Frequency (HF)

• High frequency communication

is based on the refraction of
signals in the F-layer of the
ionosphere.

• HF communication is also
called sky wave communication
 27

2.3 Radar
27
• RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection and
Ranging.

• It is electronic equipment designed to determine

distance and reflection of targets by measuring the
time required for a radio signal to travel from a
transmitter to a target and return as reflected echo.
 28

Simple Block Diagram of Radar Installation

 29

Operational Principles of a Radar System

a. Power Supply
 
Furnishes all AC/DC voltages necessary for the
operation of the system components.

Modulator
 
Produces the synchronizing signals that “trigger” the
transmitter the required number of times per second. It
also triggers the indicator sweep and coordinates the
other associated circuits.
 30

APRA
1. Stand alone ARPA

This kind of an ARPA is a compromise between the

old day radar and modern ARPA. With the
introduction of ARPA in the merchant marine
industry, many ship owners find it demanding and
time consuming to remove their radar console and
replace it with a new ARPA unit.
 31

Stand Alone ARPA

2. Integral ARPA 32
 
This single ARPA unit
receives all the raw data and
processes them within the
same system. A separate
control console is made for
all the ARPA additional
facilities and special
functions.
Integral ARPA
ARPA Basic Functions 33
Target Acquisition

Acquisition is the most valuable feature for ARPA. This

is the way ARPA provides the vectors and data for all
targets specified by the operator. There are two varied
forms for ARPA mainly:
a. Manual Acquisition
•The operator mainly controls
this form of target acquisition.
He moves a graphic symbol on
the display monitor called a
screen marker.
 35
b. Fully Automatic Acquisition
 
Virtually, the equipment automatically acquires all
targets within the scope of the ARPA. This process
saves the navigator the time to personally pick out
each target to be acquired.
 36
c. Automatic Acquisition by Area
 
This system includes the area rejection boundaries,
guard zones and guard rings. Specialized areas where
fully automatic acquisition of all targets within, are
preset by the operator. All others excluded by the
area are not liable for automatic acquisition.
 37

Example of an ARPA Vector (a single target is

acquired, producing the protuberance showing its
relative direction).
 38
Target Acquisition Quantity

For an ARPA equipped with manual and fully

automatic acquisition, a maximum number of 20
targets maybe acquired simultaneously. As for ‘those
units equipped only with manual plotting, a
maximum number of 10 targets maybe acquired.
Tracking
39

In order to acquire a target, it is just necessary to first

track the target. Tracking is required to monitor the
movement of targets and thus derive the desired data
from their barest movements. As a target is acquired,
a tracking gate forms out.
Rate Aiding 40
 
Creating a larger tracking gate poses some problems.
For one, it is the main cause for the so-called target
swoop. And this could cause a lot of error in the
acquisition of data. Rate aiding is the process wherein
the tracking process retries to predict the movements
of the target in order to narrow the margin of its
tracking gate.
Target Swoop 41
 
As to what we have discussed earlier, the larger the
tracking gate is the more you can expect a target
swoop. Target swoop is the process in which two
targets are caught in one single tracking gate. This
could cause an entangle between the vectors of the
targets.
 Target Loss 42
 
In some cases, a target is being tracked and in the
process, continuous scanning is required. If the
target, in some instances, failed to respond in one of
the scans, a search is required in order to find the
target Continuous scanning is done until after five
unsuccessful scans and the target still is unavailable
for the expected response.
Vectors 43
 
As in the radar modes of display, ARPA also utilizes
the three displays of its vectors, namely North up,
Head Up, and the true motion. In ARPA, there is a
setting in which not only the relative vectors maybe
displayed but true vector as well.
IMO Performance Standards for ARPA 44

In addition to the general requirements contained in

resolution A.694(17), ARPA should comply with
the following minimum performance standards.

1. Acquisition

2. Tracking

3. Display
 45
4. Operational Warnings
5. Data Requirements
6. Trial Manoeuvre
7. Accuracy
8. Connections with other equipment
9. Performance tests and warnings
10. Sea and ground stabilization
2.4 ECDIS 46
Electronic Chart Display and Information System

This 5-days course provides training in the basic

theory and use of an Electronic Chart Display
Information System (ECDIS). It covers all relevant
safety aspects and aims to go beyond the use of
operational controls.
At the end of the course, trainees will be able to: 47
• demonstrate the use of all the keys and functions
of each part of the equipment

• Set up and operate the ECDIS equipment

effectively for their navigational watch and voyage
planning as well
• Identify the assess all relevant information, and take 48
proper action related to ECDIS

• Differentiate the basic principles governing the safe

operation of ECDIS, including all data and its
presentation, the system related limitations, and
potential dangers
LEGAL ASPECTS AND REQUIREMENTS 49
• Carriage requirements
• Equivalency
• Performance Standards
• Data Procurement
• Training Requirements

Use ECDIS systems as an equivalent alternative to

paper charts only if the ECDIS Systems are based on
official ENC’s and if they fulfill the performance
standards
ECDIS DATA 50

•Terms and definitions

• Data structure and database
• ENC creation
• Data quality
• Reference systems
• Data distribution
• Loading and storing
PRESENTATION OF ECDIS DATA 51
• Presentation library

• Modifying the chart presentation

• Scope and selection of chart data ( display categories)

• Automatic presentation rules

• Modes of presentation
2.5 AIS
AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS)

The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) (2001)

objectives for implementation of AIS are to enhance
safety and efficiency of navigation, safety of life at
sea, and maritime environmental protection.
 53
The motivation for adoption of AIS was its
autonomous ability to identify other AIS fitted vessels
and to provide extra precise information about target
ships that can be used in collision avoidance.
 54
1- VTS-based AIS study carried for about one month
during September – October 2005 at Liverpool Vessel
Traffic (VTS) station on vessels leaving and
approaching port, at anchor and alongside for a total
number of 94 different vessels.
2- Data-mining AIS study conducted for data
55
recorded by AISLive Company of Lloyds Register-
Fairplay Ltd. The data consisted of 400,059 AIS
reports from 1St March to 17th March 2005, in a
worldwide geographical area. 30946 of the AIS entries
were selected for a more detailed analysis
 56
3- Proactive AIS study conducted through the services
of AISweb of Dolphin Maritime Software Ltd, UK, in a
wide geographical area from 23rd November 2005 to
2nd May 2006. The data were recorded at ad-hoc times
and date
Findings 57
The findings of the research are summarised below,
organised by individual AIS field.

MMSI number

The MMSI number problem was particularly noted with

many vessels transmitting the incorrect default MMSI of
1193046 (The Nautical Institute, 2005a).
 58
In the “Data-mining AIS study”, 2% of the erroneous
static information identified was in the field containing
MMSI numbers, which only include those incorrect
MMSI entries with figures incorporating less than 9
digits.
Vessel type 59
In the “VTS-based AIS study” 6% of vessels had no
vessel type available and 3% were defined as “vessel”.
The problems of this category include vague or
misleading vessel types. Commonly, the general ship
type “Cargo” or “Vessel”,
60
Part of the problem is that there is currently not 61
enough categories defined to cover all ships types and
it is not feasible to have every potential ship-type.
However, some very common and distinctive
categories of vessels, such as container, car carrier
and bulk carrier, are not separately identified in the
AIS specification and would be identified as “cargo”.
Ship’s name and call sign 62
Although in the limited “VTS-based AIS study” there
were not any incorrect name or call signs identified,
in the wider “Data-mining AIS study”, problems
noticed were that fields were left blank. No name or
call sign were given in 0.5% of the total AIS
messages recorded.
Vessel navigational status 63
In the “VTS-based AIS study”, 30% of ships were
detected as displaying incorrect status information and
there were probably more examples undetected by the
research. Four percent displaying an incorrect status
for power driven vessels underway using their engines
by showing their status as underway sailing, an option
that should be used only by sailing vessels under sail.
 64
Navigational status is very important information in
situational awareness and anti-collision, particularly as
it can decide when a ship would be the “stand-on” or
“give way” vessel. Rather confusingly, the AIS data
programming shows that navigational status for some
vessel categories is given in the field of ship type as
well the navigational status field.
 65
It is important for the navigators to be aware and
prepared for such ambiguities by specific AIS training
both from the programming and from the
interpretation perspectives, as indeed they are
currently made aware for the intricacies of lights and
shapes.
Length and beam 66
In the “VTS-based AIS study”, 47% of the ships
displayed incorrect length and 18% of them displayed
incorrect beam in their AIS information.

The vessels reporting incorrect lengths included:

• 6.4% that showed 0 for their length;
• 36.3% with an error of between 1 metre and 5
metres, and
• 4.3% with an error of more than 5 metres.
The vessels reporting beam inaccurately included:
67
• 6.3% showing 0 for their beam;

• 8.5% indicating an inaccuracy between 1 metre and

5 metres and

• 3.2% indicating an inaccuracy of more than 5

metres.
Draught 68
An obvious discrepancy in 17% of AIS draught entries
observed in the “Data mining AIS study” is its non-
availability or reporting of 0m draught. It was also
observed that in 14% of the AIS entries draught is
greater than length of the ship. We were unable to
verify if the remaining 69.5% was inaccurate or not.
Destination and estimated time of arrival (ETA)
69

In the “Data-mining AIS study” the sample of 30946

AIS transmissions, 49% showed obvious errors in the
fields of destination and ETA. Some of the vague or
incorrect AIS entries for destination found were; a
number instead of destination, a country name instead
of port name, an abbreviated name difficult to interpret,
the words “not available” or “not defined” or “null”,
mischievous input (e.g. “to hell”) or a blank field.
 70
Warning signals in the form of a buzzer associated
with a text message that could appear on the screen
to inform the mariners about any incompatibility of the
navigational status with speed could have an
influential effect in reducing risk in dangerous
situations
ANALYSIS
71

Two kinds of failure, active and latent, are associated

with accident development in a system. Active failures
usually involve unsafe acts of frontline operators in
direct contact with the system such as ship’s officers or
pilots.
72
 73
Figure 2 is an accident model for the AIS adapted
from the “Swiss Cheese” model that shows one
possible accident trajectory that may occur in the
system.
 74
Using system’s approach, based on an application of
the “Swiss Cheese” model, failures at different levels of
the AIS system are summarized. Table 3 shows the
failures observed in the AIS system. Suggestions for
remedial action to reduce likelihood of such errors and
thus minimize accident opportunities, are also shown.
 75

Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Simulation and Training, Inc.
 76

Table 3. Summaries of the human failures associated with AIS equipment

CONCLUSION 77
• The findings of the present studies, and previous
research show that the data provided by AIS are not
reliable in many cases and therefore mariners cannot
wholly trust the equipment. This could lead to further
deterioration in AIS usage and data quality.
 78
• The automation of AIS is mainly related to the
transmission and reception of data and the integrity of
the system is dependent on many manual inputs. The
current unreliability of AIS data is a critical issue
against the AIS trustworthiness as a navigational aid in
collision prevention activities.
• It is apparent that some optional fields of AIS 79
information, such as destination and ETA, are not
considered important by the mariners as in most cases
they are not updated. Navigators need more
encouragement to maintain the data showing on their
equipment. It will also give them more confidence in
AIS data broadcasted from other ships.
2.6 Charto 80

Nautical Chart

A nautical chart represents part of the spherical

earth on a plane surface. It shows water depth, the
shoreline of adjacent land, prominent topographic
features, aids to navigation, and other navigational
information.
 81
It is a work area on which
the navigator plots courses,
ascertains positions, and
views the relationship of the
ship to the surrounding area.

It assists the navigator in

avoiding dangers and arriving
safely at his destination.
CHARTS 82
CHARTS PROJECTIONS:

Mercator
Simple Conic
Lambert Conformal
Polyconic
Azimuthal
Gnomonic
Cylindrical
2.7 Echo Sounder
83
Device that detects
objects under water by
means of sonar – by using
reflected sound waves.
Most boats are equipped
with echo sounders to
measure the water depth
beneath them.
 84

An echo sounder consists of a transmitter, which emits

an ultrasonic pulse, and a receiver, which detects the
pulse after reflection from the seabed.
 85

The time between transmission and receipt of the

reflected signal is a measure of the depth of water.
Fishing boats use echo sounders to detect shoals of fish
and navies use them to find enemy submarines.
2.8 Doppler Log 86
The JLN-205 Doppler Log is designed as a device of
ship speed measurement and information. The JLN-
205 utilizing high frequency of ultrasonic wave brings
high stability and accuracy of speed measurement.

In addition, a miniaturized transducer will enable to

install on the bow where is in less influence against
tiny bubbles.
Stable & high accurate
measurement 87
Easy reading of speed indication
• Ensuring accurate measuring and stable indicating of 88
ship speed since measurement is insensible to bubbles
generated in navigation.

•The installation on bow of what is less bubbles

influence will be accomplished with a miniaturized
transducer.

•The large characters in main display helps easy glance.

• To enable connecting GPS receiver will bring 89
comprehensive speed information calculated by
GPS information.

• Various option units can help to configure an

optimal Doppler Log system.

• This equipment is complied with the following

standards.
2.9 GPS 90

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-

based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that
provides location and time information in all weather,
anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.
91
92
 93
The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome
the limitations of previous navigation
systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors,
including a number of classified engineering design
studies from the 1960s. GPS was created and realized
by the U.S. Department of Defense (USDOD) and was
originally run with 24 satellites. It became fully
operational in 1994.
DGPS 94
Omnitech was contracted to
design a portable ship
tracking system to precisely
record the position of ships
during acoustic and magnetic
signature measurements.
Shore based hardware consisted of a custom designed 95
UHF data link and DGPS reference station with coded
time-stamp output to synchronize data collection
hardware. Shipboard software was developed in
Dynamic C and shore based software was developed in
LabVIEW.
The LabVIEW software graphically and numerically 96
displays the ship's position relative to the position of
fixed under-water hydrophones and magnetic sensors.
The software also distributes ship's position via LAN to a
variety of other custom developed LabVIEW applications
for data analysis and logging.
 97

2.10 Gyro Compass

 98

The use of GYRO COMPASS on modern ships has now

significantly increased throughout the years. It is
now preferred by mariners than the magnetic
compass because of its ability to seek the true North
and is not affected by earth’s magnetism.
 99

GYRO COMPASS ERROR

Gyrocompass Components

A modern gyrocompass system consists of a master

unit, a control cabinet, a power supply unit, a speed
unit, and auxiliary electrical transmission and alarm
units.
 100

2.11 Magnetic compass

 101

MAGNETIC COMPASS ERROR

 Magnetic deviation

A binnacle containing a ship's

steering compass, with the
two iron balls which correct
the effects of ferromagnetic
materials
 102

2.12 Safety Equipment

•Lifejackets - Immersion Suits 
•Rescue Boats - Life-rafts 
•Life-rings and Flares 
 103

• Air horns and signal lamps

•Lifebuoy Lights and Clocks Barometers and
Searchlights 
•Anti-exposure suits Line Throwers 
•Manover boards EPIRBS 
•SARTS Life-raft servicing 
•Hydrostatic release units
 104

2.13 Weather Fax

 105

2.14 Nav Text

We will now consider the preamble of a Navtex

message.

The dedicated Navtex receiver has the ability to select

which messages are to be printed out according to:

1) A four-character technical code (B1,B2,B3,B4) which

appears in the preamble of each message.
 106

2) Whether or not the particular message has already

been printed. Certain essential classes of safety
information, such as navigational warn­ings,
meteorological warnings and SAR information are
non-rejectable to ensure that ships using Navtex
always receive the most important information.
 107

2.15 GMDSS Equipment

• Shore based maintenance

• On-board maintenance

•Duplication of equipment
 108

The authorities of the different flag states are

responsible for ensuring that their ships are equipped
in accordance with the GMDSS (SOLAS 1974/88) and
that coastal radio stations/coast earth stations
are suffi­ciently updated to handle traffic under the
new system. Status of shore-based facilities for the
GMDSS
 109

2.16 Voyage Data Recorder

Voyage Master II S-VDR

110
2.16 Voyage Data Recorder

Guidance in the Operation

When a marine accident occurs, it is necessary to store

the recorded data from the VDR.

The Master shall be responsible in keeping the

recorded data for the purpose of acquiring the
necessary information following a marine accident.
In case of any marine accident occurred, the following
actions should be taken:

(1)Master to contact the company DPA whether

necessary to stop the recording in the VDR.

(2) Upon approval of the DPA, the Master shall stop the
recording in accordance to the Maker’s instructions
procedures.
(3) The time of stopping should be recorded in the
deck official log book.

(4) Master should wait further instruction from the

company.

(5) Only the personnel authorized by the company

and/or proper authority is allowed to retrieve the
stored data in the VDR.
The Master & officers should familiarize themselves
with the use of VDR equipment onboard.

A ‘simplified working instruction’ in the operation of

key functions of the VDR in accordance to maker’s
instruction manual shall be ‘posted’ next to the VDR
unit for immediate reference.
2.17 Communication Equipment

Basic requirements to be Observed

Radio watch shall be maintained in accordance with

the Radio Regulations and the
relevant requirements of the Safety Convention

GMDSS equipment shall be maintained in an efficient

operating condition.
GMDSS Operator shall listen on the 2187.5 kHz-
radiotelegraph distress and safety frequency at all
time during watch hours and using a radiotelegraph
auto alarm during hours other than watch duty.

Listening shall also be conducted on other frequencies

(Distress Frequency) if required by international
agreement.
GMDSS equipment provided shall always be
maintained in good operating condition.

GMDSS operator is allowed to communicate on other

frequencies.

While at sea, when radio officer are not on duty, the

auxiliary transmitter and receiver of
the radiotelephone shall be tuned to 500 kHz.
A radiotelegraph auto alarm shall always be tested to
ensure normal operation. If any abnormality is
discovered, it shall be reported immediately to the
Masters or a deck officer on watch.

In a silence period during watch keeping hours,

distress and other emergency signals can
be heard in the frequency range of 495-505 kHz.
Ship's position shall be obtained regularly and send to
office concern as per Master’s
order.

A list of other ships (ship's names, call signs and

positions if available) in nearby waters
shall be maintained.
If the ship joins a ship's position reporting system,
the related position report approved by the Master
shall be transmitted as necessary.

Additional operating hours other than those specified

by the Radio Regulations shall be adjusted to include
hours for call list, weather information, navigational
warning schedules, transmission of weather
observations
Radiotelephone operation shall be conducted in
accordance with the Safety Convention.

Transmissions that are not permitted or all other

interference including transmissions conducted
during silent periods or transmission of distress
signals in particular are to be identified if possible
and entered in the radio log,
A Radio officer should be physically and mentally
prepared before assume his watch duties.

Measures shall be taken to prevent the hearing

ability of a watch keeping radio officer from being
reduced due to extremely loud external noises on
board. When an extremely loud noise cannot be
avoided, ear protector shall be used.
 Officer on
3 Watch
1.1 Reporting to Watch

All persons assigned as officer-in-charge of a watch or

as a rating forming part of a watch shall be provided
with a minimum of 10 hours of rest in any 24-hour
period.
The hours of rest may be divided into no more than
two periods, one of which shall be at least 6 hours in
length.

The officer in charge of the navigational or deck watch

shall be duly qualified in accordance with the
provisions of chapter II, or chapter VII pertaining to
the duties during navigational or deck watchkeeping
(STCW).
1.2 Handover of Watch

Officer of the Watch should not hand over the watch if

there is any reason to believe that the relieving officer
is unfit to, or is temporarily unable to, carry out his
duties effectively. If in any doubt, the Officer of the
watch should call the master.
Before taking over the watch, the relieving officer
must be satisfied as to the ship’s position and confirm
its intended track, course and speed, and engine
controls as appropriate, as well as noting any dangers
to navigation expected to be encountered during his
watch.
1.3 Bridge Team Management

In determining that the composition of the navigational

watch is adequate to ensure that a proper look-out can
be continuously maintained, the master should take into
account all relevant factors including the following:

• Visibility, state of weather and sea

• Traffic density, and other activities occurring in the
area in which the ship is navigating
• The attention necessary when navigating in or near
traffic separation schemes or other routeing
measures.

• The additional workload caused by the nature of the

ship’s functions, immediate operating requirements
and anticipated manoeuvres.
• The fitness for duty of any crew members on call who
are assigned as members of the watch

• Knowledge of and confidence in the professional

competence of the ship’s officers and crew

• The experience of each OOW, and the familiarity of

that OOW with the ship’s equipment, procedures and
manoeuvring capability
• Activities taking place on board the ship at any
particular time, including radio communication
activities, and the availability of assistance to be
summoned immediately to the bridge when
necessary.

• The operational status of bridge instrumentation and

controls, including alarm systems

• Rudder and propeller control and ship manoeuvring

characteristics
• The size of the ship and the field of vision available
from the conning position

• The configuration of the bridge, to the extent such

configuration might inhibit a member of the watch
from detecting by sight or hearing any external
development

• Any other relevant standard, procedure or guidance

relating to watchkeeping arrangements and fitness for
duty
Sole look-out

If sole look out watchkeeping is to be practiced on any

ship, clear guidance should be given in the shipboard
operational procedures manual, supported by master’s
standing orders as appropriate, and covering as a
minimum:
• Under what circumstances sole look-out
watchkeeping can commence

• How sole look-out watchkeeping should be supported

• Under what circumstances sole look-out

watchkeeping must be suspended.
It is also recommended that before commencing sole
look out watchkeeping the master should be satisfied,
on each occasion, that:

• The Officer on the Watch has had sufficient rest prior

to commencing watch.

• In the judgement of the OOW, the anticipated

workload is well within his capacity to maintain a
proper look-out and remain in full control of the
prevailing circumstances.
• Back-up assistance to the OOW has been clearly
designated

• The Officer on the Watch knows who will provide that

back-up assistance, in what circumstances backup
must be called, and how to call it quickly
• Designated back-up personnel are awre of response
times, any limitations on their movements, and are
able to hear alarm or communication calls from the
bridge

• All essential equipment and alarms on the bridge are

fully functional.
The Bridge Team

All ship’s personnel who have bridge navigational watch

duties will be part of the bridge team. The master and
pilot (s), as necessary, will support the team, which will
comprise the OOW, a helmsman and lookout (s) as
required.
It is important that the bridge team works together
closely, both within a particular watch and across
watches, since decisions made on one watch may
have an impact on another watch.
3.4 Passage Plan

Positioning fixing in intervals

In normal coastal navigation, ship’s positions shall

generally be fixed every 15 minutes and plotted on
the nautical chart.
Whenever the existence of danger is conceivable in
navigating through reefs and shallows, and when
taking fixes continuously wherever appropriate must
check entering and sailing harbour, or anchoring,
safety.
Plotting positions from electronic position-fixing
systems

Care should also be exercised when taking geographical

positions from electronic position fixing systems like
GPS, plotting these onto charts.
The Officer on Watch should bear in mind that:

• If the chart datum differs from the datum (usually

WGS84) used by the electronic position-fixing
system, a datum shift will have to be applied to the
position co-ordinates before they are plotted on the
chart:
• On chart whose survey source data is very old, the
accuracy of those charts may be poor in certain
areas: under these circumstances the Officer on the
Watch should not rely totally on position fixing using
electronic systems, and should where possible use
visual and radar navigational techniques to maintain
safe distances off the land.
Transit fix: The method of lining up charted objects to
obtain an LOP.

Position fix: The intersection of various LOPs.

Running fix: The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure

to use only the corresponding DR positions. Also don't
use the EP for advancing the first LOP.
Transit fix: The method of lining up charted objects to
obtain an LOP.

Position fix: The intersection of various LOPs.

Running fix: The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure

to use only the corresponding DR positions. Also don't
use the EP for advancing the first LOP.
3.5 Close Quarter Situations

 At times it is very difficult to decide if there is a risk

of collision. The best practice is to assume that there
is a risk until it is proven otherwise. The most
certain method of deciding if a risk of collision exists
is to take a bearing on the other vessel as soon as it
sighted, then repeat this at 2-3 minute intervals.
In open water this should be as soon as it comes
over the horizon, if the vessel is making full speed
there is only a short period to make decisions in. It is
a sign of inexperience to wait until the vessel is close
before starting to take bearings.
 149

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 As part of training the crew, this task should be
delegated, initially under supervision. This will help
the crew to be more alert to other vessels and to
keep a more effective watch when they discover
how hard it is to make this judgment by eye.
 In confined waters, there are other problems. Often
the vessels will be following a winding channel, in
this case, they may be heading well clear, then
suddenly turn towards an unsuspecting vessel.
 The other difficulty in confined waters, is that
there is much less time to take the bearings.
However, in these situations a quick check is to
look at the movement of the background in
relation to the other vessel:

 If the background appears to be moving in an

aft direction, you will pass astern of the other
vessel.
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 If the background appears to be moving in a
forward direction, you will pass ahead of the other
vessel.

 If the background is steady in relation to the other

vessel you will hit the other vessel.
This rule reminds us that proper use of radar should be
made, with checks at a variety of ranges and use made
of plotting to determine the closest point of approach.
Safe Speed

In compliance with the COLREGS, ships should at all

times proceed at a safe speed. In restricted visibility
safe speed may required a reduction in service speed
to reduce the stopping distance of the ship.
3.6 Masters Night Orders/Masters Standing
Orders

Reduced Visibility

Call the lookout man or post additional lookouts, alert

the Master and the engine room, if the traffic density is
also heavy, alert other OOWs to assist you.
When necessary make appropriate sound signals,
switch on the navigation lights even in daytime as
when close quarter situation develops, the
navigation lights indicate the aspect better. Reduce
speed to safe speed.
Night Orders and Standing Orders

The Night Order Book is the vehicle by which the

captain informs the officer of the deck of his orders for
operating the ship. It may be in hardcopy or softcopy
format. The Night Order Book, despite its name, can
contain orders for the entire 24 hour period for which
the Captain or Commanding Officer issues it.
The Officer of the Deck or mate on watch must not
follow the Night Orders blindly. Circumstances under
which the captain signed the Orders may have
changed, rendering some evolutions impractical or
impossible. The Officer of the Deck,
3.7 Safety Rounds

Rounds in accommodation and on deck

There are many parts of the ship, which are not visited
regularly. Small deviations if any, not detected and
corrected in time, may lead to a disaster. There is
therefore, a need to ensure that everything is under
control in remote parts of the vessel.
Some vessels carry deck cargo. The lashing on these
becomes loose due to vessel’s movement in the seaway.
These need to be checked and tightened from time to
time. The OOW upon being relieved should therefore
take a round on deck and in accommodation. When
taking rounds, the OOW should ensure that:
a. No fire hazard exists

b. No apparent sign of flooding of vessel

c. Nothing unusual is detected including unsecured

door, leaking hydraulic line, loose electric connection

d. No loose or unsecured articles are detected in

common rooms
e. Deck cargo lashings are tight and are in order. If
necessary, the crew should be called out and
lashings tightened in presence and to the satisfaction
of relieved OOW. A positive report of this should be
made to the bridge.
3.8 Compass Check

Determine gyro compass error at least once daily and

before each transit of restricted waters. Check the gyro
compass reading against the inertial navigator if one is
installed. If the vessel does not have an inertial
navigator, check gyro error using a flux gate magnetic
or ring laser gyro compass, or by using the celestial
techniques
 167

3.8 Chronometer check

Chronometer is a clock
that is precise and
accurate enough to be
used as a portable 
time standard; it can
therefore be used to
determine longitude by
means of 
celestial navigation.
 168

When first developed in the eighteenth century it was

a major technical achievement, as accurate
knowledge of the time over a long sea voyage is
necessary for navigation, lacking electronic or
communications aids.
3.9 Receiving a Pilot
Notation

• Ship in direction of travel

• Ship at anchor

• Lighthouse
3.9 Receiving a Pilot
 The Use of
4 Nautical
Publication
 173

4.1 Charts

Map

A map shows land areas, physical features of the land,

cities, towns, roads, political boundaries, and other
geographic information.
 174

A nautical chart represents part of the spherical

earth on a plane surface. It shows primarily areas
of navigable waters, coastlines and harbors, depths
of water, aids to navigation, channels, prominent
topographic features, obstructions and other
navigational information. It provides a means of
describing position in terms of latitude and
longitude.
 175

4.2 Tide Table

A tide table, sometimes called a tide chart, is

used for tidal prediction and shows the daily times
and height of high water and low water for a
particular location.

The dates of spring tides and neap tides,

approximately seven days apart, can be
determined by the heights of the tides on the tide
table: a small range indicates neaps and large
indicates springs.
 176

Tide prediction was long

beset by the problem of
laborious calculations; and
in earlier times, before the
use of digital computers,
official tide tables were
often generated by the
use of a special-purpose
calculating machine,
the tide-predicting
machine.
 177

4.3 Admiralty Sailing Direction

• Often referred to as Pilots,

Sailing Directions are designed
for use by the merchant
mariner on all classes of ocean-
going vessels with essential
information on all aspects of
navigation.
178
 179

4.4 List of lights and Radio Signals

A List of Lights is a publication describing
lighthouses and other aids to maritime navigation.

Is the transmission of signals through free space by

modulation of electromagnetic
waves with frequencies below those of visible light.
International maritime signal flags  180

Is one system of flag signals representing individual

letters of the alphabet in signals to or from ships.
It is a component of the International Code of
Signals (INTERCO).
A (Alfa) G (Golf)
181
B (Bravo) H (Hotel)

C (Charlie) I (India)

D (Delta) J (Juliet)

E (Echo) K (Kilo)

F (Foxtrot) L (Lima)
M (Mike) T (Tango)

N (November) U (Uniform) 182

O (Oscar) V (Victor)

P (Papa) W (Whiskey)

Q (Quebec) X (Xray)

R (Romeo) Y (Yankee)

S (Sierra) Z (Zulu)
 183

Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of

oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the
air and the vacuum of space. Information is carried by
systematically changing (modulating) some property
of the radiated waves, such
as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width.
184
The Nautical Almanac: This is the essential
yearly reference work for celestial navigation at
sea using a marine sextant and for other simple
navigational purposes e.g. gyro checks at sunrise and
sunset. It is carried on every ship of the Royal Navy
and the US Navy and on many sea-going vessels
around the world.
 Navigation
5 and
Calculation
5.1 Celestial navigation, also known as
astronavigation,

is a position fixing technique that has evolved over

several thousand years to help sailors cross oceans
without having to rely on estimated calculations, or
dead reckoning, to know their position.
The sun is most commonly used, but navigators can
also use the moon, a planet or one of 57 navigational
stars whose coordinates are tabulated in the Nautical
Almanac and Air Almanacs

Stars

Stars are distant suns, in many ways resembling the

body which provides the earth with most of its light
and heat.
 189

Star charts
Star charts provide an aid to the navigator in locating
the navigational stars among the constellations. It is
useful to be able to identify stars by relative position
- a star chart is helpful in locating these relationships.

Equatorial stars
Star charts are based upon the celestial equator
system of coordinates, using declination and sidereal
hour angle (or right ascension).
 190

Navigational Stars Chart

The chart displays constellations and the 57

navigational stars used in the Air and Nautical
Almanacs. The navigational stars are distinguished by
their proper names.
 191

Navigational Stars Chart

The Celestial Sphere
The Celestial Sphere is an
essential concept of
celestial navigation. Figure
1 depicts a celestial
sphere centered on an
observer on Earth.
Motion of the Sun

Annual Motion of the Sun

• Every day the Sun rises and sets 4 minutes later
with respect to the stars
• Therefore after one year it returns to the same
position relative to the stars

Annual Visibility of the Stars

• The constellations that are visible on a given night
are those opposite from the Sun on the celestial
sphere
• Thus you see different stars at different times of
the year as the Sun moves along the ecliptic
relative to the stars
• The apparent motion is due to the Earth orbiting
the Sun
Annual Motion of Sun
• The sun moves along a repeatable path on the
celestial sphere throughout the year. This path is
called the ECLIPTIC
– Sun moves eastward relative to stars on celestial
sphere
– It moves 360 degrees in a year, i.e. about 1 degree
per day

– The constellations through which we see the sun

move are the constellations of the ZODIAC

– The ecliptic is tilted by 23.5 degrees to the celestial

equator

• This apparent motion is due to the Earth orbiting

the Sun Annual Motions of the Sun
• The maximum daily altitude (angle above horizon)
of the Sun changes with season

– It reaches a maximum on the summer solstice

(June 21 in the northern hemisphere north of the
Tropics)
– Its minimum altitude is reached on the winter
solstice (December 21 in the northern hemisphere
north of Tropics

• The sunrise and sunset points along the horizon

also change with season

– It rises and sets due east on the equinox (Sep 21,

and March 21)
– It rises north of east in the summer, and south of
east in the winter
Perspective of Earth and celestial sphere, showing
the ecliptic (plane), the celestial equator (overhead
the Earth's equator) and the Earth's polar axis (which
also points to the celestial poles).
The intersection shown between the equator and the
ecliptic (the vernal equinox point) is not associated with
any particular location on the Earth (despite the
diagram), because the Earth rotates daily, while the
celestial sphere does not. The angle between the
equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane is called the
obliquity of the ecliptic
Celestial Sphere
Celestial axis and poles

The axis through the center of the celestial sphere

perpendicular to the celestial equator is the celestial
axis. The poles are at either end of this axis,
corresponding to the Earth's poles (P N is the celestial
north pole, Pn is the actual north pole).
Meridians:

Circles passing through both celestial poles are called

Celestial Meridians, they correspond to meridians on
the Earth (lines of longitude) which pass through
both the north and south pole. The observer's
meridian on the celestial sphere is the circle passing
through KZPN.
The Ecliptic

The ecliptic is the path the sun appears to take among

the stars due to the annual revolution of the earth on its
orbit. It is considered a great circle of the celestial
sphere, inclined at an angle of about 23º26’ to the
celestial equator, but undergoing continuous slight
change.
Obliquity Of The Ecliptic

The angle between the Earth's equator and the ecliptic.

It is the same as the Earth's axial tilt. The mean
obliquity, corresponding to the mean equator, is
currently just over 23° 26', but is decreasing slowly at a
rate of 47.5” per century because of planetary
perturbations of the Earth's orbit.
Polar Distance

The angular distance of an object from the celestial

pole, measured along a line at right angles to the
celestial equator (the hour circle). It is 90° minus the
object's declination, and is sometimes used as a
coordinate in place of declination.
 206

5.2 Terrestrial Navigation

The process involves using both a magnetic and a

gyro compass together with the determination of
latitudinal and longitudinal locations.
 207

5.3 Electronic Navigation

This course is a composite of CPS/USPS seminars on

Navigation with GPS, Electronic Charting and Radar
for Pleasure Craft.

It is advisable that students planning to take this

course are familiar with Chart Reading and Position
Plotting, as taught in our Boating Course.
208
 209

An electronic navigational chart (ENC) is an official

database created by a national hydrographic office for
use with an Electronic Chart Display and Information
System (ECDIS). An electronic chart must conform to
standards stated in the International Hydrographic
Organization (IHO)
210
In navigation, dead reckoning (also ded (for
211
deduced) reckoning or DR) is the process of
calculating one's current position by using a previously
determined position, or fix, and advancing that position
based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed
time, and course.
212
 213

5.4 Compass error calculation

In  navigational  work,  you  have  to  develop  the  

ability  to  quickly  and accurately  convert  directions
 between  true, magnetic and  compass(headings,
 courses, and bearings).
 214

Three  lines  of  reference  have  been  established:

 the direction  of  true northe,  or  the  true
 meridian;  the direction  of  magnetic  meridian;
 and  the direction  of  the  north  point  of  the
 compass.  Ship’s  heading  is  the  same. How  you
 describe  it  depends  on  the  reference  point
 used.
 215

There  are  three  way to name  a  course  or

heading:

• True   heading
• Magnetic   heading
• Compass   heading
 216

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Simulation and Training, Inc.
217
 218

Whether you are determining courses the helmsman

is to steer, obtaining
bearings to be plotted on a chart, laying track
lines on the chart, or recording  courses  in  the
 Magnetic Compass  Record Book, knowing  how
to apply variation and deviation comes into play. 
 219

5.5 Time Zones

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 220

• The graph of the equation of time is closely

approximated by the sum of two sine curves, one
with a period of a year and one with a period of
half a year. The curves reflect two astronomical
effects, each causing a different non-uniformity in
the apparent daily motion of the Sun relative to the
stars:
Current Standard Time Zones (as of March 27, 2011). 221

Map of Global Local Times, (including DST), as of July 2011

 222
5.6 Chronometer check
 223

5.6 Chronometer check

Chronometer is a clock that is precise and

accurate enough to be used as a portable time
standard; it can therefore be used to determine
longitude by means of celestial navigation.
A marine chronometer 224
-is a clock that is precise and accurate enough to be
used as a portable time standard; it can therefore be
used to determine longitude by means of celestial
navigation. is necessary for navigation, lacking
electronic or communications aids.
5.7 Location of Equipment

The marine sextant measures the angle between two

points by bringing the direct image from one point
and a double-reflected image from the other into
coincidence. Its principal use is to measure the
altitudes of celestial bodies above the visible sea
horizon.
It may also be used to measure vertical angles to find
the range from an object of known height. Sometimes
it is turned on its side and used for measuring the
angular distance between two terrestrial objects
A marine sextant can measure angles up to
approximately 120°. Originally, the term “sextant” was
applied to the navigator’s double-reflecting, altitude-
measuring instrument only if its arc was 60° in length,
or 1/6 of a circle, permitting measurement of angles
from 0° to 120°. In modern usage the term is applied to
all modern navigational altitude-measuring instruments
regardless of angular range or principles of operation.
Optical Principles of a Sextant
When a plane surface reflects a
light ray, the angle of reflection
equals the angle of incidence.
The angle between the first and
final directions of a ray of light
that has undergone double
reflection in the same plane is
twice the angle the two
reflecting surfaces make with
each other (figure on the right).
Use of the Sextant

A sextant is used to determine

the sextant altitude (hs) of a
celestial body.
First, we have to decide which
stars to observe; this is done
using a Rude Starfinder or
other methods.
When making an observation,
the star should look as shown
in the next slide.
 How to Read a Sextant

A sextant measures the angle of a celestial object

above the horizon, typically for the purposes of
marine navigation. The basic principal of using the
position of celestial objects for navigation has been
known since antiquity.
How to Read a Sextant
Step 1

Select an appropriate celestial object. The sextant can

"sight" any visible object, and typically uses the sun
during the day. The celestial bodies that are most
useful for navigation at night are Polaris for the
Northern Hemisphere and one of the Southern Cross
stars for the Southern Hemisphere.
How to Read a Sextant

Step 2

Measure the angle of the horizon with the arc. Look

through the sextant's telescope and align the
horizon through the telescope with the horizon that
is reflected in the mirror. Lock the arm with the
clamp and record the degree measurement on the
arc.
How to Read a Sextant

Step 3

Read the micrometer measurement. A sextant used for

actual navigation will have a micrometer that measures
fractions of a degree, typically as little as 10 seconds.
Add the micrometer measurement to the degree
measurement obtained in Step 2.
How to Read a Sextant

Step 4

Record your instrument error. The measurement of the

horizon obtained in step 3 should ideally be zero.
However, a sextant will normally have some
measurable error. In order to account for this error,
you will need to subtract this error from any sightings
you take.
How to Read a Sextant

Step 5

Sight the celestial object. Move the sextant's arm,

with the second mirror, until the object just brushes
the horizon. You will see the object superimposed on
the horizon. Measure the angle of the sextant as
previously described and record the measurement
along with the exact time that you took the
measurement.
Errors and corrections to sextant readings

Besides errors during manufacture which are

extremely small in a good quality instrument, a
marine sextant can have errors due to
 the index mirror not being perpendicular to
the plane of the instrument.
 the horizon glass not been perpendicular to
the plane of the instrument
 the horizon and the index mirrors not being
perpendicular to each other
MARINE SEXTANT

ADJUSTABLE ERROR
 Collimation Error
 Index Error
 Perpendicularity Error ( Horizon )
 Perpendicularity Error ( Index )
NON - ADJUSTABLE ERROR
 Prismatic Error
 Centering Error
 Graduation Error
 241

Three  lines  of  reference  have  been  established:

 the direction  of  true northe,  or  the  true
 meridian;  the direction  of  magnetic  meridian;
 and  the direction  of  the  north  point  of  the
 compass.  Ship’s  heading  is  the  same. How  you
 describe  it  depends  on  the  reference  point
 used.
 242

There  are  three  way to name  a  course  or

heading:

• True   heading
• Magnetic   heading
• Compass   heading
 243

5.8 Tide Calculation

 244

If we look at the progress of High Water up the Channel

from west to east,  in general the time of HW is later in
the day, and the height of HW and the range varies with
the local geography.  If we knew the detailed height
and time differences, which are consistent and
predictable, between Dover and the other ports,
 245

we could determine all the other port tide times and

heights from Dover only.  It is obviously easier to
publish in the almanac the tide tables for the various
Standard Ports, which are usually major centres of
commercial shipping, and look up the tides directly. 
246
247
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249
250
251
 Safety
6 Equipment
6.1 Lifeboat

A small craft aboard a ship to allow for emergency

escape
6.2 Life Raft - is a
small, rigid or
inflatable watercraft
carried for emergency
evacuation in the
event of a disaster
aboard ship.
 Life Buoy

• Life Buoy
• Backed by proficient
team of experts, we
have been able to
fabricate the
durable range of Life
Buoy. Fabricated
using durable high
visibility orange
synthetic material
and requires no
maintenance.
6.4 Life vest - is a device designed to assist a
wearer, either conscious or unconscious, to keep
afloat.
6.5 Emergency Lighting - emergency light is a
battery-backed lighting device that comes on
automatically when a building experiences a
power outage
6.6 Emergency Escape
Routes - An exit route is a
continuous and
unobstructed path of exit
travel from any point within
a workplace to a place of
safety.
6.7 Emergency Steering Gear
6.8 Emergency Fire Pump is a part of a fire sprinkler
system's water supply and can be powered by electric,
diesel or steam
6.9 Emergency Generator
6.10 Emergency and Fire Plan
6.11Breathing
Apparatus - is a device
worn by rescue workers,
firefighters, and others to
provide breathable air in
an IDLH (Immediate
Danger to Life and
Health) Atmosphere.
6.12 Fire Man Outfit
6.13 Line Throwing Apparatus
6.14 Man Over Board Bouy
6.15 EPIRB (Emergency
Position Indicating Radio
Beacons)

Distress beacon
A distress beacon is a small
electronic device that, when
activated in a life-threatening
situation, assists rescue authorities
in their search to locate those in
distress.
6.16 Radar Transponder

A search and rescue radar transponder (SART) is the

main means in the GMDSS for locating ships in distress
or their survival craft. The SART operates in the 9 GHz
frequency band and generates a series of response
signals on being interrogated by any ordinary 9 GHz
shipborne radar or suitable airborne radar.
6.17 Fire Blanket

A fire blanket is a
safety device designed
to extinguish small
incipient (starting)
fires. It consists of a
sheet of fire retardant
material which is
placed over a fire in
order to smother
6.18 Fire Extinguisher -
fire extinguisher is an
active fire protection device
used to extinguish or control
small fires, often in
emergency situations
6.19 Fixed Fire Fighting Equipment
6.20 Fire Hoses - A fire
hose is a high-pressure
hose used to carry water
or other fire retardant
(such as foam) to a fire to
extinguish it. Outdoors, it
is attached either to a fire
engine or a fire hydrant.
Indoors, it can be
permanently attached to
a building's standpipe or
plumbing system
6.21 International Shore Connection
6.22 Fire Boxes

A fire alarm box is

an outdoor device
used for notifying a
fire department of a
fire.
6.23 Oil Spill Equipment
6.24 Pyrotechnics - is an illuminating distress signal
which conveys that the people using the pyro
techniques are in grave or imminent danger and require
immediate assistance. It is a visual method of sending
SOS signals.
Different Types PyroTechnics

1. Hand flare
2. Rocket parachute flare
3. Buoyant smoke signals
4. Line Throwing Appliances
6.25 Survival Suit - is a
special type of
waterproof dry suit that
protects the wearer from
hypothermia from
immersion in cold water,
after abandoning a
sinking or capsized
vessel, especially in the
open ocean.
6.26 Emergency Escape Breathing Device
6.28 Third Officers Safety/Inspections

The third mate is usually responsible for the upkeep

of lifesaving and firefighting equipment. This includes
a responsibility for some or all of the ship's boats,
and particularly the lifeboats.

The third mate is also generally an active participant

in fire and boat drills.