PRESENTATION ON OBJECTIVES 1.

1
-1.8
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANTHER AND
THE FORMATION OF POLLEN GRAINS

The anther may be monothecous or dithecous. A monothecous anther consists of two

locules or two sporangia. So it is said to be bilocular or bisporangiate.

A dithecous anther consists of four locules or four sporangia. So it is said to be

tetralocular or tetrasporangiate.

Development of microsporangium is eusporangiate (= Sporangium developing from a

group of cells).

A very young anther in transverse section shows epidermis and archesporium.

The archesporial cells divide periclinally giving rise to primary parietal cells on the
outer side and sporogenous cells towards inner side.
The cells of the parietal layer divide periclinally and anticlinally forms
endothecium, middle layers and tapetum.
The cells of the primary sporogenous tissue differentiated into pollen
mother cells or microspore mother cells.
The anther wall consists of following walls layers:
1. Epidermis
2. Endothecium
3. Middle Layers
4. Tapetum
 THE EPIDERMIS

Epidermis is the outermost single layer. It is compactly arranged and usually

protective in function.
Epidermal stomata was reported in Alangium.
 THE ENDOTHECIUM

The cells of the endothecium are radially elongated and shows fibrous
bands.
The fibrous bands are made up of callose an arise from the inner tangential
walls. Usually fibrous bands are “U” shaped.
The fibrous bands are hygroscopic in nature. Endothecial cells help in the
dehiscence of anther at maturity.
Because of the presence of fibrous bands, this layer is otherwise called
fibrous layer. It is usually single layered. (Exception - Coccinia double
layered).
 THE MIDDLE LAYERS

Below the endothecium 2-3 layers of cells are present which constitute
middle layers.
These layers are ephemeral and become crushed by early meiosis in pollen
mother cells.
These cells act as storage centres for starch.
 THE TAPETUM

Tapetum is the innermost layer of anther walls, and it completely surrounds

the sporogenous tissue. The cells contain dense cytoplasm with prominent
nuclei.
Usually tapetum consists of single layer of cells. As the tapetum completely
surrounds the sporogenous tissue major part of it is derived from parietal
cells and a small part developed from the sporogenous tissue.
Tapetum transports the nutrients to the developing sporocytes. Tapetal cells
are pigmented and it is red brown in Apple or violet in Anemone.
On the basis of behaviour, there are two kinds of tapetum:
 AMOEBOID TAPETUM

The inner and radial walls of the tapetum break down due to the action of
hydrolytic enzymes and their tapetal periplasmodium. This tapetal
plasmodium remains associated with the pollengrains till their maturity.
When the anther gets drying up the tapetal periplasmodium gets dehydrated
and coated over the surface of pollengrains, thereby helping in the
formation of exine. Amoeboid tapetum is considered as the primitive type.
It is also called periplasmodial tapetum. Example: Alisma, Tradescantia,
Typha, Saggitaria, Potamogeton.
protoplast penetrates between the pollen mother cells and developing
pollen grains. After intrusion, they fuse with each other and forms a mass
of
 GLANDULAR TAPETUM

The cells of glandular tapetum remains intact throughout microspore

development. They secrete their substances from their inner faces.
Secretary tapetal cells are thin and possess almost all cell organells like
mitochondria, plastids, dictyosomes etc. Just before the pollen mother cells
undergo meiosis, the walls of the tapetal cells become thick and there is
considerable increase in the no. of ribosomes and pro-ubisch bodies with
the completion of pollen development proubish bodies pass into the anther
locule from the tapetal cells and they are now called ubisch bodies and they
coated over the pollengrains. Example: Higher monocots and many dicots.
Pollen is produced within the anthers (microsporangia or pollen sacs) of the
flower. During its development from an undifferentiated mound of cells
(anther primordium) the anther forms two general groups of cells. The
reproductive or sporogenous cells give rise to the microspores and are
formed from cells located centrally within the developing anther. The non-
reproductive cells form discrete anther tissues layers and include the
epidermal, cortical and tapetal cell layers surrounding the sporogenous
cells. The tapetum which is the innermost layer of the pollen sac plays a
dominant role particularly during the microspore stage. For example, many
male sterile mutations affect tapetal cell functions and development is often
arrested during the microspore stage.
 MICROPOROGENESIS AND MICROGAMETOGENESIS

Two distinct and successive developmental phases, microsporogenesis and

microgametogenesis, lead to the production of the mature
microgametophytes.
Microsporogenesis comprises the events which lead to the formation of the
haploid unicellular microspores. During microsporogenesis the diploid
sporogenous cells differentiate as microsporocytes (pollen mother cells or
meiocytes) which divide by meiosis to form four haploid microspores. Each
diploid meiocyte gives rise to a tetrad of four haploid microspores and
microsporogenesis is complete with the formation of distinct single-celled
haploid microspores.
 Microgametogenesis comprises events which lead to the progressive
development of the unicellular microspores into mature microgametophytes
containing the gametes. This phase begins with the expansion of the
microspore which is commonly associated with the formation of a single
large vacuole. Vacuolation is accompanied by the displacement of the
microspore nucleus to an eccentric position against the microspore wall. In
this position the nucleus undergoes first pollen mitosis (pollen mitosis I)
which results in the formation of two unequal cells, a large vegetative cell
and a small generative cell each containing a haploid nucleus. The
generative cell subsequently detaches from the pollen grain wall and is
engulfed by the vegetative cell forming a unique 'cell within a cell'
structure. The engulfed generative cell divides once more by mitosis
(pollen mitosis II) to form the two sperm cells completely enclosed within
the vegetative cell cytoplasm either before pollen is shed (tricellular pollen)
or within the pollen tube (bicellular pollen).
 STRUCTURE OF THE OVULE AND THE
FORMATION OF THE EMBRYO SAC

Ovum (Egg) - female gamete

Polar nuclei - later fuse to form diploid nucleus
 
Antipodal and synergids appear to have no function and
eventually disintegrate.
 FORMATION OF EMBRYO SAC

The embryo sac formation occurs in two stages

Stage 1:
In the first stage, megasporogenesis occurs, where the haploid megaspore
tetrad forms due to the meiosis of a single diploid mother cell.
Out of this, three disintegrates, and one sustains, which later develops into
the embryo sac
 Stage 2:
The second stage is the megagametogenesis, where the embryo sac is
formed due to mitosis of the functional haploid megaspore to produce 8-
nucleate, 7-celled gametophyte.
The polar nuclei move to the centre out of all the eight nuclei, to combine
and generate a single diploid cell at that location (centre).
This single diploid cell then fuses with the sperm to generate the triploid
endosperm.
The other three nuclei grow into antipodal cells while two modify into
synergid cells which degenerate gradually.
 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS FROM
POLLINATION TO FERTILIZATION

The pollination process is that which occurs when the pollen leaves the stamen
and lands on the stigma. In some plants, the pollen and stigma can come from the
same flower or plant, which is known as self-pollination. In other plants, the
pollen must come from a different plant than the stigma, which is known as cross-
pollination. Although self-pollination is easier to achieve, it does not ensure as
much genetic diversity as cross-pollination, leaving those plants more susceptible
to problems, such as disease. One of the most well-known types of pollination in
plants is that involving another creature, such as a bird or bee. The creature will
land on a flower to get nectar from the flower and brush against pollen in the
process. The animal will then transfer the pollen to the stigma of that flower or
other nearby flowers. The other most common method of pollination involves
nothing more than the wind, which knocks pollen loose from the stamen and
blows it through the air until it hopefully lands on the stigma of a flower.
SELF-POLLINATION
CROSS-POLLINATION
 The fertilization process is where by when the pollen lands on the stigma,
the fertilization process begins. The sperm nuclei then travel down the style
through a pollen tube into the ovary, where it enters an ovule. At this point,
one of the sperm nuclei will unite with the egg nucleus and create a zygote.
The other will unite with two polar nuclei to create an endosperm nucleus.
The egg and endosperm nucleus grow inside the fertilized ovule and
develop into a seed eventually. The ovary will then produce a fruit to
protect the seed. This could be a fruit protecting a single seed, such as an
avocado, while others have many seeds, such as a kiwi.
 Non-synchronous maturation of stamens (protogyny) and carpels (protandry).
Protogyny - when stigma matures and is ready to accept pollen but anther is
not mature yet to release pollen.
Protoandry - when anther is mature and release pollen grains but stigma is not
mature yet to accept pollen.
Dioecy - plant has separate sexes where trees produce either male of female
flowers. NB male trees are nearby for the female trees to produce fruits so self-
pollination if impossible.
Self-incompatibility - if a pollen grain has an allele that is the same as one
on a stigma it will not germinate, so gene determines whether pollen grains
germinate and grow on stigmatic surfaces.
Male sterility - some mutations result in failure to produce pollen grains
which resulted from genes on chromosomes in nucleus and also genes in
mitochondria.
Heterostyly - the existence of plants with two types of flowers with a
species. Some plants have anther above stigma (style short) and some
plants have anther below stigma (style long).                  
NB: Insect pollinators transfer pollen from flowers with short styles to
flowers with long style and from flowers with long style to flowers with
short style.
 
 GENETIC CONSEQUENCES OF
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Self pollination

Self-pollination leads to self- fertilization where gametes come from the

same plant and is the most extreme form of inbreeding. There will be some
variation since in meiosis there is random combination of genes and it is
not the same meiosis that produces the pollen grain nuclei and female
gamete nucleus. If plant has potentially harmful recessive allele there is a
high probability that the offspring will be homozygous recessive likely that
all seeds in the fruit will show very little variation as all the
male gametes originated from the same parent.
 Cross pollination

pollen grains that brought male nuclei could have come from several or
many plants so within each fruit there could be a wide range of genotypes
Potential for variation with the seed in one fruit is large if many genes are
considered. This is outbreeding which increases the amount of variation in
the offspring generation.
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DOUBLE
FERTILIZATION IN THE EMBRYO SAC

Double Fertilization

Double fertilization is a complex process which involves the fusion of one

female gametophyte with two male gametes.
Double fertilization is a chief trait of flowering plants. In the phenomena, one
female gamete unites with two male gametes. One of the male gametes
fertilizes the egg resulting in the formation of a zygote and the other unites
with 2 polar nuclei for the formation of an endosperm.
Double fertilization provides stimulus to the plant resulting in the ovarian
development to fruits and development of ovules into the seed. When the
haploid male gametes and female gametes fuse, the diploid state of the plant
is restored.
 Significance of Double Fertilization

The significance of double fertilization is as follows:

1. Two products are obtained as a result of double fertilization.
2. There are chances of polyembryony, and the plant has better chances of
survival.
3. Double fertilization gives rise to an endosperm that provides
nourishment to the developing embryo.
4. It increases the viability of the seeds of angiosperms.
5. It utilizes both the male gametes produced by the pollen grains.
 After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and grow
through the style to reach the ovule. The microspores, or the pollen, contain
two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell. The pollen tube cell
grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell travels. The
germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and certain chemical
signals. As it travels through the style to reach the embryo sac, the pollen
tube’s growth is supported by the tissues of the style. In the meantime, if
the generative cell has not already split into two cells, it now divides to
form two sperm cells.
 The pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids
present in the embryo sac, and it enters the ovule sac through the
micropyle. Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell,
forming a diploid zygote; the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei,
forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm. Together, these
two fertilization events in angiosperms are known as double fertilization.
After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The fertilized
ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit,
usually enveloping the seed.
 After fertilization, the zygote divides to form two cells: the upper cell, or
terminal cell, and the lower, or basal, cell. The division of the basal cell
gives rise to the suspensor, which eventually makes connection with the
maternal tissue. The suspensor provides a route for nutrition to be
transported from the mother plant to the growing embryo.
The terminal cell also divides, giving rise to a globular-shaped proembryo.
In dicots (eudicots), the developing embryo has a heart shape, due to the
presence of the two rudimentary cotyledons. In non-endospermic dicots,
such as Capsella bursa, the endosperm develops initially, but is then
digested, and the food reserves are moved into the two cotyledons.
 As the embryo and cotyledons enlarge, they run out of room inside the
developing seed, and are forced to bend. Ultimately, the embryo and
cotyledons fill the seed, and the seed is ready for dispersal. Embryonic
development is suspended after some time, and growth is resumed only
when the seed germinates. The developing seedling will rely on the food
reserves stored in the cotyledons until the first set of leaves begin
photosynthesis
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEED AND THE
FRUIT FROM THE EMBRYO SAC AND ITS
CONTENTS, THE OVULE AND THE OVARY.

The seed and fruit are the results of fertilization or sexual reproduction in
plants. The ovary in angiosperm develops into the fruit whereas the ovule
becomes the seed enclosed within the fruit. Seed are found both in
gymnosperm and angiosperm. Once fertilization occurs, the mature ovule
begins to differentiate into a seed.
Seeds are the reproductive unit of plants and as such most seeds start with
fertilization. Pollen grains travel from the stamen, the male reproductive
organ of the plant, to the receptive flowers. Pollen grain that land on the
pistil of the female reproductive structure germinates and form pollen tubes
that travels through the style into the ovary.
In the ovary, one pollen nuclei fuse with the egg cell to form a zygote. The
cell will develop into the embryo that will ultimately germinate to become
a new plant, But in order to form a new plant, that single cell must divide.
The zygote get message from surrounding tissues in the form of hormones.
These chemical promote the development of the embryo from the zygote
for example, cytokins cause the zygote to go through cell division and
auxin produced by the embryo causes cell to expand in angiosperm, or
flowering plants an additional pollen nuclei form the pollen tube fuses with
two polar nuclei inside the ovary. This form a triploid cell that will become
the endosperm. The endosperm serves as food source for the developing
embryo. It contains carbohydrate, lipids and protein needed for growth of
the embryo while it waits for germination.
 A carpel is the structure which includes both the ovary and its associated
ovule(s) in a flower the number of carpels, varies among plant species for
example, flower of walnut, pistachio and all crop species within the genus
prunus contain a single carpel which female kiwi fruit contains at least 30
fused carpels. After pollination and fertilization carpels develop into the
fruit tissue we eat (ovary) and seeds within (ovules). Fruit development is
initiated by growth regulating hormones produces by developing seeds,
because carpels ultimately develop into fruit tissue, the number of carpels
in a flower determines the degree to which pollination and seed
development is required to produce fruit. Flowers with one carpel only
require fertilization of one of the two ovules to produce fruit. In contrast
species with multiple fused carpel require fertilization of a smaller
proportion of the ovules within a flower for fruit development, the growth
regulating hormones produced by a subset of the total possible seeds are
sufficient to initiate the development of fused carpels into fruits.
Plants that are not included in asexual reproduction are flowering plants,
such orchid which rely on the process of pollination to help reproduce
example of other: sunflower, ferns, liverwort rice, corn, rye, barley, and
oats.
 THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction produces plants that are genetically identical to the

parent plant because no mixing of male and female gametes takes place. It
does not allow species to change and adapt to changing conditions. Asexual
reproduction is beneficial in a stable, unchanging environment, or in an
under-crowded environment.
 ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. It allows for rapid populating: This form of reproduction offers the

ability to produce large quantities of offspring.
2. The resulting plant will reach faster maturity: Since the new plant is
arising from an adult plant or plant parts, it will also be sturdier than a
seedling.
3. The energy requirements for reproduction are minimal. Because only
one parent is required for this reproductive process, the energy
requirements throughout the cycle of reproduction are reduced. This means
that energy does not need to be expended in the fusing of genetics. This
makes it easier for a specie to pass information to the next generation.
4. Positive genetic influences are guaranteed to be passed to the next
generation. The offspring created through the process of asexual
reproduction is essentially a duplicate of the parent, all the positive traits of
the species are virtually guaranteed to be passed along.
5. It provides a defensive mechanism. Smaller organisms tend to be at the
mercy of larger organisms because of the cycle of nature.
 
 DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Negative mutations linger longer in asexual organisms. The offspring of an

asexual organism is essentially a clone of the parent; any negative mutations
that are within the genetics of the organisms will be passed down to the
offspring. This increases the risk of asexual specie to eventually become extinct
as most mutations tend to be more negative than positive, especially with the
limited evolution that is available to such specie.
2. Diversity is limited. Only one parent is involved in reproduction with an
involved in reproduction with an asexual organism, the diversity within the
species is extremely limited.
3. There can be inability to adapt. Asexual organisms are not always able to
adapt to a changing environment or habitat.
4. Pest resistance is minimal with asexual reproduction. Plants that are grown
through an asexual reproductive cycle tend to be less likely to resist pest that
may be within the environment.
 5. Asexual organisms typically have lower lifespans. The crops which
are created through an asexual reproductive cycle have a lifespan that is
usually shorter than plants that propagate through a regular sexual process.
 Process of Binary Fission

Binary fission is the splitting of one cell into two.

. Circular chromosome replicates

. Two chromosomes separate
. Two new cell membranes are formed from across the middle of the cell.
. The cell wall is formed between new membranes.
. The cells remain attached for a while then split.
Budding is when small overgrowth enlarges and breaks off as a separate
individual. An example of this is yeast.
 Process of Budding
Budding is when small overgrowth enlarges and breaks off as a separate
individual. An example of this is yeast.

1.Linear chromosomes replicate

2. Nucleus begins to divide by mitosis
3. Small swelling appears at the side of the cell which forms a bud
4. One daughter nuclei enter bud
5. Bud remains attached for a while then breaks off leaving bus scar on
parent cell.
 Process of spore formation
Asexual spore formation is formed after mitosis without the involvement of
meiosis. For example Rhizopus
Spore - microscopic, reproductive bodies that contain cytoplasm and one or
more nuclei 

1.hyphae known as sporangiophores grows up into air

2. tip of sporangiophores swell up to form sporangium
3. haploid nuclei move from hyphae to sporangium and divide by mitosis
4. cytoplasm forms around a group of several nuclei to form a spore
5. a wall form around each spore
6. when spores are mature, the sporangium splits open and the spores dry
and are blown away by air currents
 Fragmentation 
In Spirogyra (algae)
A short single chain of cell grow in length
any cell in the chain enlarge, and divide by mitosis
new filaments form when lines of weakness develop between cells then
when a disturbance to the filaments occur they break apart.
 Examples of Asexual Reproduction in plants for example Ginger

Ginger reproduces by using underground stems called rhizomes.

If a piece of rhizome is broken off a new plant s able to grow from the buds
that occur along the rhizome. The roots of the rhizome are adventitious
because they grow straight from a stem.
Buds- a group of cells that is able to undergo mitosis for growth.
Meristems- an area of a plant that has a collection of meristematic cells
Meristematic cells- plant cell which is able to divide by mitosis. It is
undifferentiated
 Hormone Stimulation

Auxin
. Located at shoot apex
. Stimulates cell elongation
. Used in rooting compound for cutting
Cytokine
located at root apex
stimulates cell division   
Gibberellin
located in roots and young leaves
stimulates cell elongation and growth in length of stem
sprayed on seedless grapes to increase grape size and distance between
grapes
Kinetin
used in tissue culture to stimulate cell division