MOTION IN A PLANE – (A) VECTORS

1. Scalars and Vectors

2. Position and Displacement Vectors
3. Equality of Vectors
4. Negative, Equal, Co-initial, Coplanar, Collinear, Unit and Zero Vectors
5. Multiplication of Vectors by Real Numbers
6. Addition of Vectors – Triangle, Parallelogram and Polygon Laws
7. Commutative and Associative Properties of Vectors
8. Subtraction of Vectors
9. Resolution of Vectors in 2D – Rectangular Components - Graphical
10. Resolution of Vectors in 2D – Rectangular Components – Trigonometry
11. Resolution of Vectors in 2D in terms of Two Given Vectors
12. Resolution of Vectors in 3D – Rectangular Components
13. Vector Addition – Analytical Method (2D & 3D)
14. Magnitude and Direction of the Resultant of Two Vectors A and
B, Cosine Rule & Sine Rule
15. Dot Product and Cross Product

Created by C. Mani, Education Officer, KVS RO Silchar Next

SCALARS AND VECTORS

All the physical quantities can be divided into two types.

They are:
(i) Scalars and
(ii) Vectors

The basic difference between them is the ′direction′.

 
Scalar
A physical quantity which has a magnitude but no direction is called scalar.

Example: Mass, length, temperature, time, density, work, specific heat, etc.

A scalar may be positive or negative. Scalars can be added, subtracted,

multiplied or divided according to rules of ordinary algebra.

Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities of same
nature.
However, multiplication and division can be performed with different
quantities. 

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Vector
A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called vector.
Example: Velocity, acceleration, displacement, force, momentum, torque, etc.

Vectors cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided according to simple

rules of algebra.

Vectors can be added, subtracted or multiplied according to the rules of vector

algebra.
 
A vector cannot be divided by another vector as it is not a valid operation in
vector algebra.

A vector quantity obeys the ′triangle law of addition′ or equivalently the

′parallelogram law of addition′.
A vector is represented as a bold face type.
For example, velocity vector is represented as v.
While writing it is difficult to reproduce bold face type. Therefore, a vector can
also be represented as v.
Magnitude (scalar part) of a vector is represented as a light face type.
For example, magnitude of velocity vector is represented as v or | v |.
Home Next Previous
Position and Displacement Vectors Y A
To describe the motion of an object in a plane, its
position with respect to origin can be chosen r′ - r P′
conveniently. P
r
Let P be the position of the object in X-Y plane at r′
time t. B

Draw a straight line from origin O to P and place O X

an arrow head at P on the line OP.
The point O of OP is called ′tail′ and the point P of OP is called ′head′ of
vector OP .
OP is called ′position vector′ of the object. It is represented by r or r .
Let the object move from P to P′ through the path PAP′ in time t′- t.
Now the position vector of the object at time t′ is given by OP′ or r′ .
Displacement vector is PP′ or r′ - r .
Note that the displacement vector is same even if the object moves through
different courses from P to P′ , say PBP′ or any other infinite number of paths.
The position vector of the object provides following information:
(i) It gives straight line distance of the object from the origin.
(ii) It gives the direction of the object with respect to the origin. Home Next Previous
Equality of Vectors
P S
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if,
and only if, they have the same magnitude A B
and the same direction.  
The figure shows two equal vectors A and B.
To check their equality, shift B parallel to itself O Q
until its tail Q coincides with that of A,
i.e. Q coincides with O.
P′
Since their heads S and P also coincide,
the two vectors are said to be equal. A′
In general, equality is indicated as A = B.
S′
Vectors A′ and B′ have the same B′
magnitude but they are not equal O′
Q′
because they have different directions.
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so
that its tail Q′ coincides with the tail O′ A″
O″ P″
of A′, the tip S′ of B′ does not coincide
with the tip P′ of A′. B″
Q″ S″
Vectors A″ and B″ have the same
direction but they are not equal because
they have different magnitudes. Home Next Previous
FEW FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS IN VECTOR ALGEBRA
P
(i) Negative Vector
The negative of a vector is defined as another A O
vector having the same magnitude but drawn A + (- A ) = 0
in the opposite direction. -A
Example: The negative vector of A is - A
O
(ii) Equal Vectors
P
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, P
and only if, they have the same magnitude and S
the same direction. (Refer to previous slide)  A B
(iii) Co-initial Vectors
Two vectors are said to be co-initial, if they
have a common initial point. O
O
A
(iv) Co-terminal Vectors
Two vectors are said to be co-terminal, if P
they terminate at a common point. B

(v) Co-planar Vectors S

The vectors are said to be co-planar, if they lie in the same plane.
The vectors drawn in this slide are all co-planar vectors. Home Next Previous
(vi) Collinear Vectors A″
Two vectors having equal or unequal magnitudes, O″ P″
which either act along the same line or along the B″
Q″ S″
parallel lines in the same direction or along the
parallel lines in opposite direction are called A″
collinear vectors. O″ P″
B″
Q″ S″
(vii) Unit Vector
A vector divided by its magnitude is called a
unit vector along the direction of the vector.
A
or A=
A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude |A|
pointing in a particular direction.
Y
It has no dimension or unit. It is used to specify
a direction only.
Unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes of a
rectangular coordinate system are denoted by j
i, j, k respectively. X
k O i
The magnitude of the unit vector is one unit and
its direction is same as that of the given vector.
Since these are unit vectors, Z
|i|= |j|=|k|=1
Home Next Previous
(viii) Zero Vector or Null Vector
Y A
Consider the position vectors in a plane
as shown in the figure.  r′ - r P′
P
Now suppose an object which is at P at
r B
time t, moves to P′ through the path r′
PAP′ and then comes back to P through
the path P′BP.
Then, what is its displacement? Find! O X

Since the initial and final positions coincide, P

the displacement is a ″null vector″.  O
A
The illustration of negative vector justifies A + (- A ) = 0
the need of a ′zero vector′. -A

A+0=0 +A=A O
λ0 =0 |0|=0 P
0A =0
(ix) Free Vector and Localised Vector
In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So shifting a vector parallel
to itself leaves the vector unchanged. Such vectors are called ′free vectors′.
However, in some physical applications, location of a vector
is important. Such vectors are called ′localised vectors′. Home Next Previous
MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL NUMBERS

Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ gives a vector whose

magnitude is changed by the factor λ but the direction is the same as
that of A.
|λ A| = λ |A| if λ > 0

For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant A 2A

vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has a
magnitude twice of |A| as shown in the figure.

Multiplying a vector A by a negative number λ

gives a vector λA whose direction is opposite to
the direction of A and whose magnitude is –λ
times |A|. A
|λ A| = -λ |A| if λ < 0
-A
Multiplying a given vector A by negative numbers,
say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as shown in the -1.5A
figure.

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ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Addition of Vectors
Two or more vectors may be added graphically or geometrically by using the
following laws of vector addition:

1.Triangle Law of Vector Addition

If two vectors can be represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in the
same order, then the resultant is represented completely (both in magnitude
and direction) by the third side of the triangle taken in the opposite order.
Example:
Addition of two vectors A and B.
A P
To add vector B to vector A, move vector B
parallel to itself so as to place the tail of B on O B
head of A. R=
A+
Join the tail of A to the head of B. Let this be B R
vector OR or R. This gives the resultant R or the
sum of the vectors A and B.
This graphical method is called the ′head-to-tail method′.
The two vectors and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, so this
method is also known as triangle method of vector addition. Home Next Previous
Commutative Property of Vectors
The Resultant vector will be the same even if A is shifted to place on B.

O R A P
A =B
+A O
B B
R R=
P A+
B R

Note that the resultant R is equal in both magnitude and direction.

R = A + B= B + A
The above relation of addition proves that the vectors are commutative.

The property that the vector addition is independent of the order in which
the vectors are added is called the commutative property of vector
addition.

Home Next Previous

Associative Property of Vectors

A P A P P
O
O A+

C
B B B

+
R= A
Q
R=(A

B
Q

+(B+
+
B)+C

C C

C
R R

)
R

Note that the resultant R is equal in both magnitude and direction.

R = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
The above relation of addition proves that the vectors are associative.

A P

O A+
B B
R= A

Q
C
+B+C

+
B

R Home Next Previous

2. Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
If the two vectors (to be added) can be represented both in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant is
represented completely (both in magnitude and direction) by the diagonal of
the parallelogram passing through the starting point of the vectors.

Example:
Addition of two vectors A and B. P
A
To add vector B to vector A, move vector B O
parallel to itself so as to place the tail of B on R= B
A+ B
tail of A.
R
Complete the parallelogram OQRP. Q
Draw the diagonal passing through the
common point O (meeting point of tails).

The diagonal represents the resultant or sum of the given two vectors.

Note that the resultant is the same as obtained by triangle law of vectors.

The two vectors are represented by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram and
the resultant is given by the diagonal, so this method is known as
parallelogram method of vector addition.
Home Next Previous
3. Polygon Law of Vector Addition
This law is used to obtain the resultant of more than two vectors.
 
If a number of vectors can be represented in magnitude and direction by the
sides of a polygon taken in the same order, than the resultant is represented
in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the
opposite order.
A P A

O A+ R
B B B
R= A

Q C
D
+B+C

C E

R
Note: The triangle law of vector addition follows from A
A
the parallelogram law of vector addition.   O
According to the parallelogram law of vector addition,
OA + OB = OC B
Since in the parallelogram, the opposite sides are equal C
and parallel, they represent equal vectors. i.e. OB = AC. B
Hence OA + AC = OC.
It is the triangle law of vector addition. Home Next Previous
Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction of vectors can be defined by vector addition of one vector
with the negative vector of the other.
Example:
Subtraction of vector B from A

To subtract vector B from vector A, find negative

R
vector of B.
B
Displace –B parallel to itself so as to place the = A-
R
tail of –B on head of A.
P
O A B-B
Join the tail of A to the head of -B. Let this be
vector OR or R. This gives the resultant R or the
difference of the vectors A and B.

A – B = A + (– B)

A + (– A ) = 0

Home Next Previous

RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
The process of splitting up a vector into two or more components is known
as resolution of vector.
 
The vectors into which a given vector is split are called component vectors.
The component of a vector in a given direction gives the measure of the
effect of the vector in that direction.
Rectangular Resolution of a Vector in a Plane
We can resolve a vector in terms of component vectors that lie along unit
vectors i and j .
Consider a vector A that lies in x-y plane Y
as shown in the figure.
A2
Draw lines from the head of A perpendicular to the
coordinate axes. Ay j
A
We get, vectors A1 and A2 such that A1 + A2 = A. X
O Ax i A1
Since A1 is parallel to i and A2 is parallel to j ,
we have A1 = Axi and A2 = Ay j where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
The quantities Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the vector A.

A = Axi + Ay j Note Ax and Ay are scalars. Home Next Previous

Resolution of a Vector Using Trigonometry
Using simple trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms of the
magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes with the x-axis: Y
Ax = A cos θ
Ay = A sin θ A 2
A component of a vector can be positive,
Ay j
negative or zero depending on the value of θ.  A
θ
Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A in X
O A x i A1
a plane. It can be specified by:
(i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes with the x-axis; or
(ii) its components Ax and Ay
If ′A′ and ′θ′ are given, then Ax and Ay can be obtained using the above
equation.

If Ax and Ay are given, ′A′ and ′θ′ can be obtained as follows:

Ax2 + Ay2 = A2 cos2 θ + A2 sin2 θ = A2
or A = A x 2 + Ay 2
Ay Ay
and tan θ = or θ = tan -1
Ax Ax Home Next Previous
Resolution of a Vector in terms of Two given Vectors
Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a plane with different directions
and let A be another vector in the same plane.

A can be expressed as a sum of two

vectors – one obtained by multiplying a P
by a real number λ and the other b
obtained by multiplying b by another
A μb
real number μ.
a
Draw a straight line through O, parallel
to a. Draw another straight line through O
λa Q
P, parallel to b. Let them meet at Q.
The vectors OQ and QP are given by λa and μb.
By triangle law of vectors, OP = OQ +
QP

A = λa + μb

The vector A is said to be resolved into λa and μb along

a and b respectively.

Home Next Previous

Resolution of a Vector into 3 Rectangular components in Space (3-D)
Let us resolve a general vector A into three components along x-, y-, and z-
axes in three dimensions. Y
If α, β, and γ are the angles between A and the x-,
y-, and z-axes respectively, then
Ax
Ax = A cos α, cos α = Ay j β
A
Ay = A cos β, | A | γ α
Ay X
Az = A cos γ O Ax i
cos β =
Az k
|A|
Az Z
cos γ =
|A| α, β, and γ are the angles in
space. They are the angles
In general, we have A = Axi + Ay j + Az k between pairs of lines which
are not coplanar.
The magnitude of vector A is A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
A position vector r can be expressed as

r = xi + y j + z k Also, cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

where x, y, and z are the components of r along

x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. Home Next Previous
VECTOR ADDITION IN 2-D – ANALYTICAL METHOD
Graphical method of adding vectors is often tedious and less accurate.
It is much easier to add vectors by combining their respective components.
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with components A x, Ay and Bx, By :

A = Axi + Ay j

B = Bxi + Byj

Let R be the sum. Then R = A + B

= Axi + Ay j + Bxi + Byj

Since vectors obey the commutative and associative laws,

R = (Ax + Bx) i + (Ay + By) j

Since R = Rxi + Ry j
Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By

Thus, each component of the resultant vector R is the sum of the

corresponding components of A and B.
Home Next Previous
VECTOR ADDITION IN 3-D – ANALYTICAL METHOD
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y-z coordinate system representing space
(3-D) with components Ax, Ay, Az and Bx, By, Bz :

A = Axi + Ay j + Az k
B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk

Let R be the sum. Then R = A + B

R = Axi + Ay j + Az k + Bxi + Byj + Bzk

Since vectors obey the commutative and associative laws,

R = (Ax + Bx) i + (Ay + By) j + (Az + Bz) k

Since R = Rxi + Ry j + Rz k

Rx = A x + B x , Ry = A y + B y and Rz = Az + Bz

Thus, each component of the resultant vector R is the sum of the

corresponding components of A and B.

Home Next Previous

This method can be extended to addition and subtraction of any number of
vectors. For example, if vectors a, b and c are given as

a = axi + ay j + az k

b = bx i + by j + bz k

c = cx i + cy j + cz k

then, a vector T = a + b – c Thas

x
= acomponents:
x
+
bx - cx

Ty = ay +
by - cy

Tz = a z + b z
- cz

Home Next Previous

Magnitude and Direction of the Resultant of Two Vectors A and B in
terms of their Magnitudes and Angle θ between them
Q R
In right triangle ODR,

OR2 = OD2 + RD2 β

B R
R2 = (A + B cosθ)2 + (B sin θ)2 B sinθ
R2 = A2 + 2AB cosθ + B2 cos2θ + B2 sin2θ θ θ
α
R2 = A2 + 2AB cosθ + B2 cos2θ + B2 sin2θ O D
A P
B cosθ
R2 = A2 + 2AB cosθ + B2 (cos2θ + sin2θ)
R2 = A2 + 2AB cosθ + B2 ( since cos2θ + sin2θ = 1)
R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cosθ

The magnitude of vector R is R = A2 + B2 + 2 A B cos θ (Law of cosines)

B sin θ
The direction of vector R is tan α =
A + B cos θ
R A B
and = = (Law of sines)
sin θ sin β sin α Home Next Previous
 ]
PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
In Physics, at Class XI level, there will be two types of product of vectors.
They are:

1.Dot or Scalar Product and

2.Cross or Vector Product

1. Dot Product or Scalar Product

In dot product, the symbol of multiplication between the vectors is
represented by ‘ . ‘ The result of the product is a scalar value.

Eg.
Work is defined as the product of force and displacement.
Here force and displacement are vectors and work is a scalar.
P
Consider two vectors A and B making an angle θ
with each other. A
The dot or scalar product is given by
θ
A . B = | A | | B | cos θ O
B Q
A.B
and cos θ =
|A||B| Home Next Previous
Properties of Dot Product
1. Dot product results in a scalar value.
2. Dot product or Scalar product is commutative. A . B =B . A

3. Dot product is distributive. A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C

4. i . i = j . j = k . k = 1

5. i . j = j . k = k . i = 0
A.B
6. Component of A along B = | A | cos θ = =A.B
|B|

A.B
7. Component of B along A = | B | cos θ = =B.A
|A|
8. If a = axi + ay j + az k

b = bxi + by j + bz k

then a . b = (ax bx + ay by + az bz)

a . a = (ax ax + ay ay + az az) a2 = (ax2 + ay2 + az2)
b . b = (bx bx + by by + bz bz) b2 = (bx2 + by2 + bz2)
Home Next Previous
2. Cross Product or Vector Product
In vector product, the symbol of multiplication between the vectors
is represented by ‘ x ‘. The result of the product is a vector.

Eg. Torque is defined as the product of force and moment arm.

Here force, moment arm and torque are all vectors. P
Consider two vectors A and B making an angle θ
with each other. A
The cross or vector product is given by
θ
A x B = | A | | B | sin θ n where n is the unit vector O
along a direction which is B Q
|A x B| perpendicular to plane
and sin θ = containing A and B.
|A||B|
A x B means the vector A is rotated towards B and its effect is taken on B.
By Right Hand Thumb Rule or Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule, the direction
of the resultant in this case is perpendicular and into the plane of the
diagram.
B x A means the vector B is rotated towards A and its effect is taken on A.
The resultant in this case is perpendicular and emerging out of the plane of
the diagram.
Closing and opening a tap is the best example. Home Next Previous
Properties of Cross Product
1. Vector product results in a vector.
2. Vector product or Cross product is not commutative. A x B = - B x A

3. ix i = jxj = kxk = 0

4. i x j = k 5. j x i = - k
jxk = i kx j = - i
k xi = j i xk= -j

6. If a = axi + ay j + az k

b = bx i + by j + bz k

axb= i j k = (ay bz – az by) i – (ax bz – az bx) j + (ax by – aybx) k

ax ay az

bx by bz

| a x b | = (ay bz – az by)2 + (ax bz – az bx)2 + (ax by – aybx)2

Home Next Previous

 Acknowledgeme
1.
nt
Physics Part I for Class XI by NCERT

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