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Action Potential
Electrodes
EEG
EMG
Introduction  Action Potential

 As Galvani demonstrated that most of the physiological processes

were accompanied with electrical changes.

 This discovery formed the basis of the explanation of the action of

living tissues in terms of bioelectric potentials.
 Human body - Power generating station ( living
tissues) (generates multiple electric signals)

Internal Source - Muscles and Nerves.

All these signals are picked up from the surface of the body or from within.
This requires electrodes of different types, also there are some parameters
like temperature, blood pressure, respiratory functions.
These parameters are basically non-electrical in nature, are converted into
corresponding electrical signals by various transducers.
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 Normal muscular contraction is associated with the migration of
ions which generates potential differences measurable with suitably placed
electrodes.
 Potential differences are also generated by the electrochemical
changes accompanied with the conduction of signals along the nerves
to or from the brain.
 All living matter is composed of cells of different types.
 Human cells may vary from 1 micron to 100 microns in diameter, from
1mm to 1m in length, and have a typical membrane thickness of 0.01micron.
 Bioelectric potentials are generated at a cellular level and the source
of these potentials is ionic in nature.
 A cell consists of an ionic conductor separated from the outside
environment
by a semi-permeable membrane which acts as a selective ionic filter to the
ions.
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Cell membrane, channel proteins

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Bio-electric signals:
 Generated by nerve cells and muscle cells.
 Basic source is the cell membrane potential under certain conditions
may excited to generate an action potential.
 The electric field generated by the action of many cells constitutes the
bio-electric signal.
 The most common examples of bioelectric signals are the ECG, EEG,
ERG and EMG etc…
Bio-acoustic signals Bio-magnetic signals
Bio-mechanical signals Bio-optical signals
Bio-chemical signals Bio-impedance signals

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Depolarization
In biology, depolarization is a positive-going change in a cell's membrane
potential, making it more positive, or less negative.
In neurons and some other cells, a large enough depolarization may result
in an action potential.

Hyper polarization
Hyper polarization is the opposite of depolarization, and inhibits the rise of
an action potential.
Resting potential
The relatively static membrane potential of quiescent cells is called
the resting membrane potential (or resting voltage)

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The Neuron

The neuron is the cell that use to detect the outside environment, the
internal environment of their own bodies, to formulate behavioral
responses to those signals, and to control their bodies based on the
chosen responses.
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 All neurons have a body called a Soma.

 The Soma contains the nucleus and all of the other organelles that are
needed to keep the cell alive and functioning.

 On one side of the neuron are the dendrites, the 'input' side.

 The dendrites are branching structures which connect with the outputs
of other neurons.

 The other end is the 'output'. It contains an axon and ends in a number
of synapses which usually connect to the dendrites of other neurons or
are connected directly to muscles.

 The axon is usually quite long compared to the rest of the neuron.

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In the AXON

Depolarization
Sodium Cations rush in

Hyperpolarisation
Potassium Cations rush out

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 Neurons in a resting state normally have a membrane potential
around -70mV.
 This means the voltage difference between the fluid on the inside of
the cell relative to the fluid on the outside of the cell is negative.
 The neuron has a pump that actively pumps three Na+ ions out and
takes in two K+ ions. This means that a net positive charge flows out of
the neuron. This is what gives the cell its negative potential.

How is this negative difference maintained?

It is done with ions like Na+, K+, Cl- , and protein anions.

When the neuron transmitters come in contact with the receptors of other
neuron, it allows the ions to flow into the cell and temporarily change the
membrane voltage. If the change is big enough then it will cause an action
potential to be fired.

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Action Potential

 The first step of the action potential is that the

Na+ channels open allowing a flood of sodium ions
into the cell. This causes the membrane potential to
become positive.

 At some positive membrane potential the

K  channels open allowing the potassium ions to flow
+

out of the cell.

 Next the Na+ channels close. This stops inflow of

positive charge. But since the K+ channels are still
open it allows the outflow of positive charge so that
the membrane potential plunges.

 When the membrane potential begins reaching its

resting state the K+ channels begin to close.

 Now the sodium/potassium pump does it's work

and starts transporting sodium out of the cell, and
potassium into the cell so that it is ready for the next
action potential.

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 The signal output of a
neuron can either cause
excitation or inhibition in the
neuron it is connected to.

 When a neuron sends an

excitatory signal to another
neuron, then this signal will
be added to all of the other
inputs of that neuron.

 If it exceeds a given
threshold then it will cause
the target neuron to fire an
action potential, if it is below
the threshold then no action
potential occurs.

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  Electrodes
Need of Electrodes

Biologic systems frequently have electric activity associated with them.

This activity can be a constant dc electric field, a constant flux of charge

carrying particles or current, or a time-varying electric field or current

associated with some time-dependent biologic or biochemical phenomenon.

Bioelectric phenomena are associated with the distribution of ions or

charged molecules in a biologic structure and the changes in this

distribution

resulting from specific processes.

These changes can occur as a result of biochemical reactions, or they can

emanate
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Theory of electrodes

 The mechanism of electric conductivity in the body involves ions as charge

carriers.

 Thus, picking up bioelectric signals involves interacting with these ionic

charge carriers and transducing ionic currents into electric currents required
by wires and electronic instrumentation.

 This transducing function is carried out by electrodes that consist of

electrical conductors in contact with the aqueous ionic solutions of the body.

 The interaction between electrons in the electrodes and ions in the body
can greatly affect the performance of these sensors and requires that
specific considerations be made in their application.
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Equivalent circuit

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Classification

A wide variety of electrodes can be used to measure bioelectric events,

but nearly all can be classified as belonging to one of three basic types:

1. Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure bioelectric potentials

near or within a single cell.

2. Skin surface electrodes: Electrodes used to measure ECG, EEG, and

EMG potentials from the surface of the skin.

3. Needle electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the skin to record

EEG potentials from a local region of the brain or EMG potentials from a

specific group of muscles.

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ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)

 An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test to measure the electrical

activity of the brain.
 Brain cells talk to each other by producing tiny electrical signals,
called impulses.
 An EEG helps measure this activity.
 Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity
along the scalp.
 EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current
flows within the neurons of the brain.
 In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's
spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually
20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the
scalp.

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The main frequencies of the human EEG waves are:
Delta: Has a frequency of 3 Hz or below. It tends to be the highest
in amplitude and the slowest waves. It is normal as the dominant
rhythm in infants up to one year and in stages 3 and 4 of sleep.

Theta: Has a frequency of 3.5 to 7.5 Hz and is classified as "slow“

activity. It is perfectly normal in children up to 13 years and in sleep
but abnormal in awake adults.
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Alpha: Has a frequency between 7.5 and 13 Hz. Is usually best
seen in the posterior regions of the head on each side,
being higher in amplitude on the dominant side. It appears
when closing the eyes and relaxing, and disappears when opening
the eyes or alerting by any mechanism (thinking, calculating).
It is the major rhythm seen in normal relaxed adults.
Beta: It is a "fast" activity. It has a frequency of 14 and greater Hz.
It is usually seen on both sides in symmetrical distribution and is
most evident frontally. It is the dominant rhythm in patients who are
alert or anxious or have their eyes open.

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EEG electrodes

 Chlorided silver discs having approximately 6-8 mm diameter

Electrodes are best useful as EEG electrodes.

 The contact with the scalp made via an electrolytic

paste through a washer of soft felt.
 Usually around 20-35 electrodes are placed to record the electrical activity
of the brain when there is a neuron multiplication.
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 ELECTROMYOGRAM (EMG)

 An Electromyogram (EMG) measures the electrical activity of muscles at

rest and during contraction.
 Nerve conduction studies measure how well and how fast the nerves can
send electrical signals.
 Nerves control the muscles in the body with electrical signals called impulses.
 These impulses make the muscles react in specific ways.
 Nerve and muscle problems cause the muscles to react in abnormal ways.
 If you have leg pain or numbness, you may have these tests to find out how
much your nerves are being affected.
 These tests check how well your spinal nerves and the nerves in your arms
and legs are working.

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 Motor neurons transmit electrical signals that cause muscles to

contract. An EMG translates these signals into graphs, sounds or

numerical values that a specialist interprets.

 An EMG uses tiny devices called electrodes to transmit or detect

electrical signals.

 During a needle EMG, a needle electrode inserted directly into a

muscle

records the electrical activity in that muscle.

 EMG results can reveal nerve dysfunction, muscle dysfunction or

problems with nerve-to-muscle signal transmission.

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The action potential developed by muscle contraction
Sets depolarization from the fiber 1 to fiber ‘n’
As n number of muscle fibers
contracted at same time.

The muscle activity is the

integrated potential of individual
Fibers under contraction.

The distortion in the waveform is

due to the improper contraction traced out. And required
stimuli is improved by medication to reproduce the
Sufficient action potential.

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