Solar Energy

What is Global irradiance on horizontal plane?

It is the sum of diffuse irradiance

on horizontal plane
Solar radiation components

• Direct Radiation: radiation from the sun that reaches the earth
without scattering.
• Diffuse Radiation: radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere and
clouds.
• Global Radiation: is the sum of diffuse and direct radiation.
Typical meteorological year (TMY)

• Defining typical meteorological year (TMY) is the first step to design a

solar field.

• The best option is using measurement devices (temperature, solar

radiation, etc.) installed on site and to have a wide time series.

• If this is not possible, we can generate such TMY from a series of

algorithms that use as input parameters .

• There are commercial software (e.g. Meteonorm) with a big database of

meteorological stations that generate synthetic TMY for any location in
the planet.

• Another option is satellite images.

Solar Radiation Databases

• METEONORM
• http://www.meteonorm.com
• Price: 550 EUR = 29480 PHP (single user license)
• WRDC (World Radiation Data Centre)
• http://wrdc-mgo.nrel.gov
• Free for e-mail queries
• SSE-NASA
• http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/
• Free access after registration
• The latitude and longitude of Kathmandu, Nepal is:
• 27° 43' 0" N / 85° 19' 0" E

The latitude and longitude of Thimphu, Bhutan is:

• 27° 28' 0" N / 89° 38' 30" E
Ground Based meteo station

Mandatory signals
 Global horizontal irradiance on horizontal plane
 Global diffuse irradiance on horizontal plane
 Ambient temperature
 Wind speed
Optional Signals
 Beam normal irradiance
 Global horizontal irradiance on sloped surface
 Relative humidity BSRN (Baseline Surface Radiation
Network) station at the platform in spain
Stellite Radiation Maps
Solar Potential in Nepal

Global Horizontal Irradiance, kWh/m2/day

Annual Average N
81° 82° 83° 84° 85° 86° 87° 88°

Country Average Legend

30° = 4.7 kWh/m2/day 3.85 - 4.00
4.00 - 4.15
30°

4.15 - 4.30
4.30 - 4.45
4.45 - 4.60
4.60 - 4.75
4.75 - 4.90
4.90 - 5.05
29° 5.05 - 5.20 29°

28° 28°

27° 27°

100 0 100 Kilometers

1:3500000

26° 26°
81° 82° 83° 84° 85° 86° 87° 88°
SWERA Project 13
Source: SWERA Project,2005 Figure 1 Center for Energy Studies
Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University
CES,IOE, T.U.
Bhutan –Annual Global Horizontal Radiation
World installed capacity

Total capacity of different water heater collectors at the end of 2006:

Top 10 countries (Solar Heat Worldwide 2006, IEA 2008)
World installed capacity
Distribution of total installed world
capacity by collector type (2006,
IEASolar Heating and Cooling
Program)
Solar Energy Technology

Solar Photovoltaic Solar Light Solar Heat

Solar Thermal Technology
Technology Energy Energy

• Solar Dryer
• Solar Cooker
• Solar Home System
• Solar Water
• Solar Tuki
Heater
• Institutional solar
PV system
• Solar Water
pumping system
• Building integrated
solar PV Systems 29
Solar Water Heater
Solar Water Collector

• Specific applications of solar water collectors:

a) Swimming pool heating
b) Domestic hot water to single family houses
c) Domestic hot water to multiple family buildings
d) Combined solar systems to domestic hot water and space heating
e) Combined solar systems to domestic hot water, space heating and
cooling
Flat plate solar collectors

A flat-plate collector consists of an

absorber, a transparent cover, a frame,
and insulation. Usually an ironpoor
solar safety glass is used as a
transparent cover, as it transmits a
great amount of the short-wave light
spectrum.

Main thermal losses in a static flat

collector
during its operation with incident solar
radiation. Typical efficiencies are
between
50 and 60 percent.
Static solar collector efficiency

• The efficiency of a solar thermal collector is the useable thermal

energy divided by the received solar energy. It depends on a
number of factors including the type of collector, the spectral
response of the absorbing surface, the collector insulation and the
temperature difference between the collector and the ambient air.
Static solar collector efficiency

The performance of a collector is measured according to the test standard BS

EN 12975(5) by means of a plot of efficiency versus temperature difference
and statistical curve fitting.

where η is the collector efficiency, ηopt is conversion factor (i.e.

efficiency when the collector is at the same temperature as its
surroundings), a1 is the heat loss coefficient ,a2 is the temperature
dependence of the heat loss coefficient ,Tm is the mean collector
temperature (°C), Ta is the ambient temperature (°C) and G is the global
solar irradiance .
Collector types and applications
Collector types and applications
Collector types and applications
Collector types and applications

CPC collectors

ETC+CPC collectors
Static solar collectors
Flat Plate Advanced flat
VITOSOL 100 plate
SHÜCO

CPC AoSol CPC AoSol

1.12X 1.12X

Source: ULL / CIEMAT

Swimming pool heating systems
Swimming pool heating systems

More than 35 million of m2 worldwide,

in more than 175.000 systems in
operation in 2007
Domestic hot water systems

Scheme of reference system

installation to domestic hot water
production. Typical solar collector
aperture area = 2 m2
Domestic hot water systems

Currently,
there are
many types
of flat plate
collectors
to hot
water
production
Optimum solar collector tilt angle

Yearly efficiency of a flat plate solar collector with different tilt angle.

Maximum caption efficiency is achieved with a tilt angle similar to local latitude.
Hot water + space heating

typical problem of these

installations is the excess of
thermal energy collected in
the summer period

Scheme of a typical domestic

heating
installation (using radiant soil) and
sanitary hot water (single family
houses)
Checklist for SWH Installation

• Careful site selection: Check for full sunshine throughout the year
• Structure to hold weight of system
• Water supply: Sufficient quantity and pressure (head)
• Continued accessibility of installation (collectors, tank) for
maintenance and repairs
• Cold connection to supply pipeline to prevent return of hot water into
cold water pipeline
(e.g. non-return valve or separate pipeline from feed or roof tank).
Checklist for SWH Installation

• Safety valve or vent pipe for over pressure release (due to expansion
of hot water).
• Ventilation of system: Requires gradient in circulation pipes and an air
release valve or a vent pipe on top of the hot water storage tank
• Slopes in pipelines, to avoid blockages of flow through air bubbles.
Avoid U-bend installations (especially in low-pressure supply systems)
• Insulation requirements for hot water storage tank, circulation pipes
and for hot water pipelines
• Drainage facility (tap, cap) for drainage of entire system
Common Mistakes

• Distance between storage tank and collector is too small:

– circulation can reverse during the night, which means great heat loss!
• Cold and hot water pipe connections are mixed up:
– cold and hot water layer are disturbed which results in low water
temperature!
• U-bent in collector circuit:
– air accumulates and interrupts the circulation, which means no
heating at all!
• Distance between roof tank and storage tank is too small:
– below a certain level in the roof tank the storage tank is not refilled,
which means hot water doesn't flow!
Common Problems

• Controls and sensors

• Pumps and flow rates

• Thermosyphoning and check valves

• Freeze damage

• Collector shading

• Pipe Insulation Degradation

• System sizing and consumer lifestyle

Troubleshooting

PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

Auxiliary Heater No power to auxiliary back-up

Check high temperature protection and reset
(electric) heating element

Auxiliary heater
Thermostat defective Replace
Thermostat

No hot water
Check water temperature at house faucet and
Improper adjustment
adjust valve setting
Mixing and/or anti-
scald valve
Valve defective Replace or remove from system plumbing

Distribution piping Leak (under slab or in walls) Locate leak and correct
Troubleshooting
PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE
Undersized for hot water
demand load
Storage tank losses
Thermostat set too low
Auxiliary heater
Element failure
Thermostat failure
Lower element disconnected in
Not enough hot water conventional rank system
Check valve Heat loss due to defective or
improperly installed check valve
Solar return dip tube Missing, wrong location,
defective
Cold water supply dip Missing or wrong location
tube
CORRECTIVE ACTION
Replace
Insulate tank
Increase set point temperature
Replace element
Replace thermostat
Reconnect element and set thermostat to
low temperature
Inspect valve and repair or replace
Replace dip tube
Install in proper location
Troubleshooting
PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION
Absorber coating degradation Recoat or replace absorber
Area undersized Increase collector area

Inspect and repair glazing seal, pipe gaskets and

Excessive condensation
weep holes and vents at bottom

Glazing dirty Clean as required

Leaks Repair

Check orientation. Face collector " 45° east or

Orientation
west of south

Outgassing inside collector

Not enough hot water Collector(s) Clean surface and contact manufacturer
glazing

Plastic glazing deteriorating Replace

Reduction of glazing
Replace glazing
transmission

Remove obstacle and shading or relocate

Shaded by tree(s) or building(s)
collectors(s)

Improper tilt Check tilt for geographic area. Set " 15° of latitude

Compare with system schematic in installation

Improperly plumbed
manual
Troubleshooting
PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

Sized too small Replace with properly sized heat exchanger. Insulate.
Heat exchanger
Scaling, clogging Back flush, clean

Isolation valves Closed Open

Mixing/Anti-scald valve Improperly adjusted Reset temperature indicator

Check system size and discuss solar system and owner’s
Owner High water usage
lifestyle
Clogged with corrosion or sediment Replace excessively corroded components

Insufficient insulation Add insulation where required

Not enough hot
water
High heat losses Check insulation for splits, deterioration, absence

Nighttime thermosyphoning Check for pump operation at night.

Piping Improperly plumed Compare with system schematic. Check flow direction.

Isolation valves closed Open valves

Isolation valve failure after closing Replace valve

Flow blockage Flush system. Check effluent for dirt/scaling.

Check pressure gauge. Refer to owner’s manual for
Low system pressure correct pressure.
Troubleshooting
PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

No power Check breaker, pump, and controller. Repair or replace.

Flow rate too high or too low Adjust flow rate

Defective Check and replace

Activation switch off Check for switch on PV to pump wiring

Pump Check breaker, pump cord, controller fuse, if any. Replace

No power
if necessary.

Listen for irregular noises in pump operation. Feel

Faulty pump
Not enough hot collector feed and return pipes for temperature difference.
water
Runs continuously Check control system for breaks and shorts

Improperly installed Compare with system Schematic

Improper wiring, cuts, or loose

Sensors Check and correct
connections

Sensor wiring Shorted wiring Check and repair

Too small Install larger tank

Storage tank
Storage losses Insulate tank with insulation blanket
Troubleshooting

PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

Check valve Stuck open or does not seat Replace check valve

Controller Sensor wires reversed Check wiring and reconnect

Water heater circuit Water heater circuit breaker

No hot water Turn breaker back on
breaker shutoff
in morning
Freezing conditions at Recirculation freeze protection
Turn back-up power back on (circuit breaker)
night (with back-up power off)

Discuss hot water usage.

Occupants Excessive consumption
Check system size and auxiliary heater status.

Auxiliary heater Thermostat set point too high Reduce set point temperature

High limit sensor Improper calibration Check, recalibrate and replace

Occupants No hot water use (vacation etc.) Run hot water to reduce tank temperature
Water too hot
Mixing or anti-scald
Temperature set too high Adjust
valve

Mixing/anti-scald
Valve failure Replace valve
valve
Troubleshooting

PROBLEM CHECK THIS POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

Cold-water supply
No water Valve closed Open valve
valve
Piping, hot water
Leak Repair leak
distribution
In dual element tank, lower
Tank Turn to low setting or disconnect
heating element
Check setting and adjust to desired
High electric Thermostat set too high
Tank thermostat temperature
Use
Inaccurate temperature dial Recalibrate or replace
Collector return above tank
Tank dip tubes Increase length of dip tube
thermostat
Check tank plumbing. Contact installer, if
Piping Collector return above tank
necessary.
Pump does Sensors connected to wrong Correct per manufacturer’s
Controller circuitry
not start terminal recommendations
DC pump Loss of circuit continuity Check and repair or replace

On/off switch is “off” Turn to “on”

Blown fuse or breaker tripped
Electrical power supply on overload
Brownout
Determine cause and replace fuse or reset
breaker
Await resumption of utility
power
Solar Cooling
Solar cooling basics
• A solar cooling installation
consists of a typical solar
thermal system made up of
solar collectors, storage tank,
control unit, pipes and pumps
and a thermally driven cooling
machine.
• To date, most collectors used
in solar cooling systems are
the high efficiency collectors
such as double-glazed flat
plate collectors or evacuated The Coefficient Of Performance (COP) of a
tube collectors. thermally driven chiller is defined as the
• Medium temperature range fraction of heat rejected from the chilled
(150-250°C) parabolic trough water cycle (‘delivered cold’) and the
collectors could increase the required driving heat: COPthermal = Qcold
overall efficiency of the / Qheat
cooling systems
Absorption chillers

• Absorption chillers are the most

widely used chillers throughout
the world.
• A thermal compression of the
refrigerant is achieved by using
a liquid refrigerant/sorbent
solution and a heat source,
thereby replacing the electric
power consumption of a
mechanical compressor.
• For chilled water above 0°C
(used in air conditioning), a
mixture of H2O/LiBr or
NH3/H2O solution is typically
used.
Absorption chillers

Absorption working fluid properties

Water/Lithium bromide chillers
• Working fluid use water as
refrigerant
• Therefore, are limited to
refrigeration temperatures above
0ºC
• Typically: 0,6 < COP < 0,8 (single
effect machines)
Ammonia/Water chillers
• Ammonia is used as refrigerant
• Allowable refrigeration
temperature is much lower (-77
ºC)
• Main problem: ammonia toxicity
• Typical COP ≈ 0,5
Absorption chillers
Battery of TRANE absorption
chillers installed in 2005 in Los
Angeles (USA). It can be
installed
either at the roof or inside the
building

Technology currently
most extended, but
has the inconvenience
of need a cooling
tower with the required
water consumption
and maintenance
(legionella problem)
Adsorption chillers
Principle of an adsorption chiller
• Here, instead of a liquid solution,
solid sorption materials are
and main systems components
applied. Typically water is used as
refrigerant and silica gel as
sorbent.
• Sorbent is regenerated in (1) using
hot water from external (solar)
heat source. Then, in (2) the
sorbent adsorbs the water vapour
entering from the evaporator; this
compartment has to be cooled to
enable a continuous adsorption.
• The useful cooling is produced in
the evaporator, where the water is
transferred into the gas phase
being heated by the external
water cycle
• Typical COP = 0,5 to 0,7
Adsorption chillers

Advantages against absorption Principle of an adsorption chiller

chillers and main systems components
• Simple mechanical construction
• Expected robustness
• There is no danger of
crystallisation (no limitations in
heat rejection temperatures)
• Minimum electricity consumption
as internal solution pump does not
exist
Disadvantages against absorption
chillers
• Larger volume and weight
• Higher price (due to the small
current production)
Adsorption chillers

Water / Silica
gel adsorption
chiller
coupled
with a solar
field in a
University
Clinic in
Fribourg
(Germany)

Ammonia/Water Absorption chiller just developed by Ao Sol (Portugal):

• Ammonia + Water cooling unit with 8 kW cooling capacity, nominal COP 0,6
• Chilled water 5o - 18oC (fancoil / radiant ceiling)
• Directly Air Cooled
• Solar driving temperature: 95oC (needed flat plate solar collector field of 20 to 30 m2)
• Dimensions: 0,7 m x 0,7 m x 1,9 m
• Weight: 250 kg
• Power consumption: 400 W (including waste heat dissipation)
Dehumidification technologies
Solar cooling technology using either Absorption or Adsorption chillers are
based in cycles in which the refrigerant is used in a closed cycle. Another
alternative is when the refrigerant (water) is in contact to the atmosphere
and the used principle is dehumidification of air and evaporative cooling.
• Warm and humid ambient air
enters the desiccant and is
dehumidified by adsorption of
water (1-2).
• Since the air is heated up by
the adsorption heat, a heat
recovery unit is passed (2-3),
pre-cooling the supply air
stream.
• Subsequently, the air is
humidified and further cooled
by a controlled humidifier (3-
4), up to the desired
temperature and humidity.
Dehumidification technologies
Solar cooling technology using either Absorption or Adsorption chillers are
based in cycles in which the refrigerant is used in a closed cycle. Another
promising option is when the refrigerant (water) is in contact to the
atmosphere and the used principle is dehumidification of air and evaporative
cooling.
• Air stream from the
rooms is humidified (6-7)
close to the saturation
point to exploit the full
cooling potential in order
to allow an effective heat
recovery (7-8).
• Finally, the sorption unit
has to be regenerated (9-
10) by applying heat in a
comparatively low
temperature range from
50°C-75°C, to allow a
continuous operation of
the dehumidification
process
Solar air conditioning technologies
NEP Polytrough 1200

Technical
characteristics:
• Thermal efficiency
>55% (within the
120-220 ºC range to
1000 W/m2 of
normal direct
irradiation).
• Nominal production:
15.8 kW per module
(0.55 kW/m2), with
200 ºC of average
collector
temperature
Photo Voltaic (PV)
Solar Photo Voltaic System

96
Photovoltaic integration

Photovoltaic Integration Design over a building skin typically

replace other conventional construction materials. Possibilities:
• Vertical facades (replacement of conventional external layers)
• Glass and mirror replacement
• Integration into semi-translucent light panels
• Roof integration
• Replacement of traditional roof materials
• Systems to windows shadowing
• Replacement of other conventional components of building skin
Photovoltaic integration

PV integration can be made using

different visual effects that can suppose
significant improvements in the
aesthetic appreciation of the building
Photovoltaic integration

The integration of seasonal

shadowing devices can notably
reduce the solar heat gain in
summer, without affecting the
winter performance of the building