Introduction To Computer Networks: Btech6 Sem

Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Greater Noida
Introduction to Computer Networks
Unit: 1
Computer Networks
Ms. Ayushi Gupta
KCS 603
Assistant Professor
B Tech 6th Sem Information Technology
Department
Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1

1
07/11/2021
Contents
• Course Objective/Unit Objective
• Course Outcome (highlighted for Unitwise)
• CO-PO & PSO Mapping (highlighted for Unitwise)
• Prerequisite
• Syllabus
• Introduction
• Topic objective
• Modes of Transmission
• Computer Networks
• Topology
• Types of Networks
• Internet
• Digital data
07/11/2021 Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1 2

Contents
• OSI model
• Topic objective & recap of previous topic
• TCP/IP model
• Physical layer
• Transmission medium
• Switching methods
• ISDN
• Terminal handling
• Video Links

Contents
• Quiz
• Weekly assignment
• MCQ
• Old Question papers
• Expected Questions in University exams
• Summary
• Reference
• Note the highlighted text shows the Unit wise Objectives and
outcomes and PO and PSO mapping

Course Objective
To develop an understanding of
• computer networking basics,
• to understand different components of computer networks,
• various protocols,
• the standard models for the layered approach to communication
between autonomous machines in a network,
• and the main characteristics of data transmission across various
physical link types.

Course Outcome
At the end of the course, the student will be able

Course Outcomes (CO) Bloom’s Knowledge
Level (KL)

Explain basic concepts, OSI reference model, services and role of each layer of K1, K2
C603.1 OSI model and TCP/IP, networks devices and transmission media, Analog and
digital data transmission
C603.2 Apply channel allocation, framing, error and flow control techniques. K3
Describe the functions of Network Layer i.e. Logical addressing, subnetting & K2, K3
C603.3
Routing Mechanism
Explain the different Transport Layer function i.e. Port addressing, Connection K2, K3
C603.4
Management, Error control and Flow control mechanism.
Explain the functions offered by session and presentation layer and their K2, K3
C603.5
Implementation.
Explain the different protocols used at application layer i.e. HTTP, SNMP, SMTP, K2
C603.6
FTP, TELNET and VPN.
07/11/2021 6
CO-PO Mapping
The highlighted text shows the mapping of course outcome with PO
mapping of this unit
Computer Networks (KCS-603) Year of Study: 2020-21

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
C603.1 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 3
C603.2 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 1 3
C603.3 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 3
C603.4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3
C603.5 2 2 2 1 1 3
C603.6 2 1 3 2 3 1 1 3


CO-PSO Mapping
The highlighted text shows the mapping of course outcome

with PSO mapping of this unit
CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4

C603.1 3 3 2 1
C603.2 3 3 2 1
C603.3 3 3 2 1
C603.4 3 3 1 1
C603.5 3 3 1 1
C603.6 3 3 1 1

Prerequisite
• The student should have knowledge of

• Networking
• Layout of computer
• Hardware
• The basic knowledge of C

Syllabus
Unit Topic
I Introductory Concepts: Goals and applications of networks, Categories of networks,
Organization of the Internet, ISP, Network structure and architecture (layering principles,
services, protocols and standards), The OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite,
Network devices and components. Physical Layer: Network topology design, Types of
connections, Transmission media, Signal transmission and encoding, Network performance
and transmission impairments, Switching techniques and multiplexing.
II Link layer: Framing, Error Detection and Correction, Flow control (Elementary Data Link

Protocols, Sliding Window protocols). Medium Access Control and Local Area Networks:
Channel allocation, Multiple access protocols, LAN standards, Link layer switches & bridges
(learning bridge and spanning tree algorithms).
III Network Layer: Point-to-point networks, Logical addressing, Basic internetworking (IP, CIDR,
ARP, RARP, DHCP, ICMP), Routing, forwarding and delivery, Static and dynamic routing,
Routing algorithms and protocols, Congestion control algorithms, IPv6.
IV Transport Layer: Process-to-process delivery, Transport layer protocols (UDP and TCP),

Multiplexing, Connection management, Flow control and retransmission, Window
management, TCP Congestion control, Quality of service.
V Application Layer: Domain Name System, World Wide Web and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol,

Electronic mail, File Transfer Protocol, Remote login, Network management, Data
compression, Cryptography – basic concepts.

Communication (CO1)
Topic Objective
• The student will get an insight of communications, networking
• Medium used for transmission
• Various topologies used
• The LAN, WAN and MAN concept

Communication (CO1)
• For communication we share the information

• Data refers to any information
• Data communication
• exchange of data between two devices by some transmission
medium.
• Effectiveness of data communication depends on
• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness
• Jitter

Computer Networks (CO1)
• A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers

that are able to exchange information
• Network is a set of devices connected by communication link
• The computer may be connected via any data communication link
• Computers can be personal or main frames
• The computer network may be located anywhere in the world and its
size can vary
• Generally follow a client server model.

Types of Networks (CO1)
• A Computer network is a set of nodes connected by communication links.
wired wireless
- a link carries the information
- in case of wired, medium is wire/ cables
- in case of wireless, medium is air
- Any device capable of sending/ receiving data generated by other nodes in the n/w
- Eg. Laptop, a mobile, computer, printer, security camera, switches, bridges, router etc.
Nodes End devices->serves as source/ destination
Intermediary nodes-> forwards the data from src to destination in between
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Computer Networks (CO1)

Computer network Communication(CO1)
• Components
• Message – information to be communicated
• Sender – a device that sends the data
• Receiver – a device that receives the data
• Transmission medium – physical path by which message
transmits
• Protocol – a set of rules that govern data communications
• We transmits information or data by two types of signals
• Analog – telephones and radios
• Digital - computers

Data representation
• Text
• Bit pattern, sequence of bits
• set of bits – code, process is coding
• Numbers
• Number system
• Images
• Matrix of pixels
• Size of the pixel depends on resolution
• Audio
• Continuous
• Video
• Continuous / combination of images

Computer networks
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
• Types of connections

Computer networks
• Distributed Processing
• Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is
divided among multiple computers.
• Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, separate computer (usually a personal
computer or workstation) handle a subset.

Computer networks
• Any CN should possess the following characteristics:-
1. Fault tolerance
-ability to continue working despite failures ensuring no loss of service.
2. Scalability
- Ability to grow/expand based on the needs without compromising with performance.
3. Quality of Service( QoS)
-Ability to set priorities and manage data traffic to reduce data loss, delay etc. (priority of which data
to process first in case of simultaneous arrival).
4. Security for-
-confidentiality
-Integrity -> received as sent
-misuse
-forgery
Computer networks
• Network Criteria
• Performance
• Transmit time is the amount of time required for a message
to travel from one device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
• depends on
• the number of users,
• the type of transmission medium,
• the capabilities of the connected hardware,
• and the efficiency of the software.
• evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.

Computer networks
• Network Criteria
• Reliability
• the frequency of failure,
• the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
• Security
• protecting data from unauthorized access,
• protecting data from damage and development,
• and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.

Computer networks
• Goals of networking
• Resource sharing
• High reliability
• Saving Money
• Interprocess Communication
• Flexible access
• Distribution of Process
• Peer to Peer communication
• Centralised resource Pool

Computer networks
• Applications of networking
• Accessing Remote Database
• Virtual Access Communication Facility
• Marketing & Sales
• Financial Services
• Manufacturing
• E-messages
• Direct Services
• Teleconferencing
• Cable TV

Modes of Data Transmission (CO1)
• Data Communication- > Two nodes are going to exchange data through some
medium.
• Data flow – Transmission/ transfer of data through the medium.
• 3 modes of data flow (on the basis of direction):-
1. Simplex/ Unidirectional communication
- Only one device transmits and other receives. Eg. Keyboard, traditional computers.
2. Half duplex
-Both devices can send and receive but not at the same time. If one is sending, other
can only receive and vice versa.
3.Full duplex
-both nodes can communicate simultaneously in both directions.
Eg. Mobile communication, Telephone, Voip, Social sites etc.
Modes of Data Transmission (CO1)

• Categories/ Types of Networks
- Based on size/ distance of network coverage
- LAN -> Upto 2 miles

- WAN-> worldwide
- MAN-> ~10 miles
=> LAN < MAN< WAN
• LAN
• A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office,
building, or campus
• resources can be shared
• In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission media
and topology
• Speed-> 100-1000mbps
• Latest-> WLAN (wireless LAN)

• WLAN

• WAN
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and
video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or
even the whole world

• MAN
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and
have endpoints spread over a city or part of city

MAN

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Ms. Ayushi GuptaKCS 603CN Unit 1
MAN
07/11/2021 Dr. Kumud Saxena RCS 601 CN Unit 1 34

Internet(CO1)
• When two or more
networks are
connected, they
become an
internetwork, or
internet.
07/11/2021 Dr. Kumud Saxena RCS 601 CN Unit 1 35

• When two or more different networks are connected with each other-> Network of networks =>
internetwork/ internet
• Internet (upper case)
Network-> group of two or more communicating devices
internetwork->
Internet-> collection of more than 100s or 1000s of internetworks, which millions of people are using
--it is connecting our end devices and switching station together
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):-
1. International ISP- to connect nations together
2. National ISPs-
3. Regional ISPs- smaller coverage as compared IISPs and NISPs
-smaller data rate as compared to NISPs and IISPs
Eg- Excitel, Hathaway, Airtel, Den, MTS.
4. Local ISPs- provide direct services to end users in a local area
-connected to regional ISPs or directly to NISPs.
Eg. SITI cable, Guru Infotech, Zapbytes etc
Local ISPs->Regional->National-> International
• Network Structure and Architecture
-Layering, Sercvices, Protocols and Standards
Protocol-
Protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.
-It defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated.
Features of Protocol:-
Why protocols:-
Eg. SMTP, HTTP
Elements of a Protocol
1. Message encoding
2. Message formatting and encapsulation
3. Message timing
4. Message size
5. Message delivery options
1. Message Encoding
Msg src-------->Encoder-------->Transmitter------->Transmission medium

(signal)
Receiver
Decoder(Signal)
Msg destination
• Why Encoding?
2 types of transmission medium?? (source needs to understand which medium?)
wired wireless
- data is converted in the - converted in the form of waves
form of signals
This is done by the protocols
Eg. Tom is accessing amazon.com through
(desktop system)wired wireless(phone)

Router from source converts data into Router from source converts data into
signals waves
2. Message formatting and encapsulation
-Both sender and receiver agrees to a common format of message known as formatting.
-With each data packet, sender’s and receiver’s address info (IP address) is added or
encapsulated to reach its correct destination.
3. Msg Size
If msg size is large as compared to link capacity then message needs to be broken into
smaller pieces to travel across the network.
4. Msg Timing
->Flow control – speed of data sending and receiving should match
->Response Timeout- protocol tells for how much time there should be waiting for
acknowledgement.
5. Msg delivery options
->Unicast– to only one
->Multicast– to set of receivers but not all
->Broadcast– To all
Standards
• standards are agreed-upon rules.
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications.
Standards Organizations
• Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation
committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO.
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards
Sector (ITU-T).
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
Forums
Telecommunications technology development is moving faster than the ability of
standards committees to ratify standards. Standards committees are procedural bodies
and by nature slow-moving. To accommodate the need for working models and
agreements and to facilitate the standardization process, many special-interest groups
have developed forums made up of representatives from interested corporations. The
forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and standardize new
technologies. By concentrating their efforts on a particular technology, the forums are
able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the telecommunications
community. The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies such
as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. The purpose
of these agencies is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television, and
wire/cable communications. The FCC has authority over interstate and international
commerce as it relates to communications.
Internet Standards
An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and
adhered to by those who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that
must be followed.
There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard
status. A specification begins as an Internet draft. An Internet draft is a working
document (a work in progress) with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.
Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be published as
a Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made
available to all interested parties. RFCs go through maturity levels and are
categorized according to their requirement level.
Network Structure and Architecture( Layering Principle)
eg.
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
In Figure, we have a sender, a receiver, and a carrier that transports the letter. There is a hierarchy of tasks.
At the Sender Site
Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
o Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes the sender and receiver
addresses, and drops the letter in a mailbox.
o Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
o Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.
On the Way
The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipient's local post office, the letter may
actually go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported by truck, train, airplane, boat, or a
combination of these.
At the Receiver Site

o Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
o Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
o Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.
Services
• Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it.
The sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer. The middle
layer uses the services of the lower layer. The lower layer uses the services of
the carrier.
• Layering Models/ Architectures used in Networking

- For data communication and networking
1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Protocol suite
THE OSI MODEL
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection model.
• It was designed by ISO in 1983.
• OSI- Open Systems Interconnection Model
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network.
7 layers of OSI Model
Layered Architecture
• The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers.

• when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the message travels from A to B, it
may pass through many intermediate nodes.
• These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.
• In developing the model, the designers identified which networking functions had related
uses and collected those functions into discrete groups that became the layers.
• Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers.
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine.
• This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols.
• The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-peer
processes. Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using the
protocols appropriate to a given layer.
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
-the functions of each layer in the OSI model.
1. Physical Layer
-acts as a transporter
-carries bits from one hop to another (converts bits into signals or
waves)
Other tasks of physical layer :-
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium->The physical layer defines the characteristics
of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.
• Representation of bits-> The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s)
with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
• Data rate-> The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it
lasts.
• Synchronization of bits-> The sender and receiver not only must use the same bitrate but also must
be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
• Line configuration-> The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media.
In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
• Physical topology-> The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Transmission mode-> The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission mode.
2. Data Link Layer
DLL deals with error handling, framing, acknowledgements and flow control
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender’s network, the receiver address is
the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
• Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the
frame.
• Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.
3. The network layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer
oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network
(links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to
its final destination.
-The network layer looks at the actual destination address and decides the
intermediate router through which the packet can be delivered
-For this, the network layer uses the routing algorithms
-for every incoming packet the network layer can decide the route this is known as
forwarding
-every Network layer does routing and forwarding
4. The transport layer
-The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process
to another.
- A process is an application program running on a host
-A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
• Service-point addressing. The transport layer header must include a type of address called
a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in transmission.
• Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection
oriented.
• Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
• Error control. error control at this layer is performed process-to process rather than across
a single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.
5. Session layer
The session layer is responsible for
dialog control and synchronization.
Specific responsibilities of the
session layer include the following:
• Dialog control. The session layer
allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the
communication between two
processes to take place in either
halfduplex (one way at a time) or
full-duplex (two ways at a time)
mode.
• Synchronization. The session
layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization
points, to a stream of data.
6. Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
7. Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other
types of distributed information services.
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
• Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access
files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a
remote computer locally.
• Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
• Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
• Summary of Layers

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Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1

07/11/2021 Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1 2

07/11/2021 Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1 3

07/11/2021 Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1 4

07/11/2021 Ms. Ayushi Gupta KCS 603CN Unit 1 5

Computer Networks (KCS-603) Year of Study: 2020-21

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The highlighted text shows the mapping of course outcome

CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4

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• The student should have knowledge of

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• For communication we share the information

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• A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers

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• A Computer network is a set of nodes connected by communication links.

Intermediary nodes-> forwards the data from src to destination in between

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• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

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- LAN -> Upto 2 miles

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Msg src-------->Encoder-------->Transmitter------->Transmission medium

(desktop system)wired wireless(phone)

At the Receiver Site

• Layering Models/ Architectures used in Networking

• The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers.

• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

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