BMFB 4283

NDT & FAILURE ANALYSIS

Lectures for Week 1

Prof. Qumrul Ahsan, PhD

Department of Engineering Materials
Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering
 Issues to address

1.0 Introduction to NDE

1.1 Definitions and Understanding of NDE

1.2 Concept of Defects and Discontinuity
1.3 Visual Inspection
 Non Destructive Evaluation (NDE)
NDE is the examination of an object
with technology that does not affect the
object’s future usefulness
Non destructive evaluation a term interchangeably
with non destructive testing (NDT)

NDT means

The use of noninvasive techniques to determine the

integrity of a material, component or structure
or
quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object.

i.e. refers to technology that allows a component to be

inspected for serviceability, without impairing its usefulness
 Methods of NDT
Ther
mog
Micro raph
y
Visual wave
Par t icle
es t ing g net ic
Tap T Ma
Acoustic
X-ray Microsco
py
Acoust
ic Emis
sion ents nt
em net r a
a sur Pe
M e L iq u id
ne t ic
Ult
ras Mag Replication
oni
c
Lase Eddy
r In te
k a g e rferom Curre
Flux Le a etry nt
 Six Most Common NDT
• Visual
Methods
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• X-ray
 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response
Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
 NDE - A Full Spectrum Technology
There are NDE application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component
Materials
MaterialsDevelopment
Development
To
Toassist
assistin
inproduct
productdevelopment
development

Design
Design
Processing
Processing
To
Toscreen
screenor
orsort
sortincoming
incomingmaterials
materials

NDE Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Technologies To
Toverify
verifyproper
properassembly
assembly

In-Service
In-ServiceMonitoring
Monitoring
To
Toinspect
inspectfor
forin-service
in-servicedamage
damage
 Common Application of NDT
• Inspection of Raw Products

• Inspection Following Secondary

Processing

• In-Services Damage Inspection

 Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.
 Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
• etc.
 Inspection For
In-Service Damage
• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.
 How is NDE Applied ?
• Process or quality control into feedback control
– Monitors the process
– Feeds the sensor response back to the feedback controller
– Controller controls the process variables

• Process or quality control into accept/reject criteria

– Inspects the finished product
– “go” - > accept the product to perform service
– “no go” -> reject the product ; reprocessed, recycled or
scrapped
 Understanding the NDE Choices
• Physical nature of the material property or
discontinuity to be inspected
• Processes that govern NDE methods
• Interaction of the probing field (or
material) with the test material
• The potential and limitations of available
technology
• Economic, environmental, regulatory, and
other factors
 How much do we inspect ?
• Statistics
• Consequences of Part Failure
• Larger Systems or Safety-Critical
parts
• Retirement for cause
• Risked-Informed Inspection
 Definition of discontinuities
• Discontinuity : An intentional or unintentional
interruption in the configuration of the part
• Flaw : A detectable lack of continuity or a
detectable imperfection in a physical or
dimensional attribute of a part
• Defect : One or several discontinuities that do
not meet specifications
• Nonconforming : A part is deficient in one or
more specified characteristics
 Other important vocabularies
• Indication : Observation of a discontinuity that requires
interpretation e.g. cracks, inclusions, gas pockets

• Interpretation : Determination whether an indication is

relevant, nonrelevant or false

• False : Indication not due to presence of defects in the test

material or due to test procedure

• Nonrelevant : An indication which has no relation to a

discontinuity that is considered a defect in the part being tested

• Evaluation : Assessment of a relevant indication to determine

wether specifications of the serviceability of the part are met
 Discontinuities & Defects
• NATURE OF DEFECTS 
– Microscopic Defects
– Macroscopic Defects

• ORIGIN OF DEFECTS
– Inherent Defects
– Processing Defects
– Service Defects

• DETERIORATES PHYSICAL and MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES of MATERIALS

• DETECTION of DEFECTS
– Destructive Testing
– Non-Destructive Testing
 Table 1.0 Comparison of Destructive and Non-Destructive Tests

Destructive Test Nondestructive Test

Advantages
• Measurements are direct and
reliable
• Quantitative measurements
• Direct correlation between test
measurements and material
properties  • Many NDT methods can be
Advantages
• Tests are done directly on the
object
• 100% testing on actual
components
is possible
applied
on the same part  hence many or
all properties of interest can be
measured.
• In-service testing is possible
• Repeated checks over a period of
time are possible
• Very little preparation is sufficient
• Most test methods are rapid
 Table 1.0 Comparison of Destructive and Non-Destructive Tests

Destructive Test Nondestructive Test

Limitations Limitations
   
• Tests are not made on the • Measurements are indirect
objects directly. Hence need to • Reliability to be verified
prove correlation between the • Qualitative measurements
sample specimen used and • Measurements can also be done
object quantitatively
• A single test may measure only • Skilled judgment and experience
one or few of the properties are required to interpret indications
• In-service testing is not
possible
• Measurement of properties
over
a cumulative period of time
cannot readily be possible
• Preparation of the test
specimen
CASTING DEFECTS : Inclusions

• Inclusions are nonmetallic

materials (oxides or sulphides)
• a lower melting point than the
metal
• relative brittleness
• these defects occur near the
surface as a “skin” effect.
• occur at the centre of the
casting
• they tend to be irregular in
shape, not spherical or oval.
 CASTING DEFECTS : Porosity

• gas trapped in the molten

metal
• formed by
– release from the molten metal
itself
– release from the green sand
mold, water vapour, or
turbulence caused when pouring
the metal

• form of small pockets or voids appears as

round irregular or elongated shapes
 CASTING DEFECTS : Shrinkage
• Metal contracts or shrinks when changing from the liquid
to the solid state and defects will occur in a casting unless
sufficient molten metal is available to “feed” it.
• Defects may take the form of cavities, branch-like tears 
• Shrinkage cavities occur usually at hot spots in the casting
 CASTING DEFECTS
• Piping : Central Cavity • Hot Tears
• As the casting solidifies, If a section begins to shrink
the metal contracts if while still hot and there is
there is not an adequate not a sufficient supply of
supply of molten metal liquid metal, the resulting
to the centre of the internal stress will tear the
casting metal. This is because
• usually occurs in pure while hot the metal has
metals and alloys having relatively low strength
narrow ranges of
solidification
temperature
• causes lamination
Open Die Forging Defects

Fracture -
– exhausted ductility
– Intergranular fracture in
hot working
• Barreling - Friction
• Solution -
– limited deformation per
step
– Process anneal between
steps
Closed Die Forging Defects

• Laps
 Rolling Defects : Stringers

• Nonmetallic inclusions in slabs or billets, that are

thinned and lengthened in the direction of rolling,
by the rolling process, are called stringers.
 Other Processing Defects
• Heat-Treated
Cracks

•• Grinding
GrindingCracks
Cracks
 Weld Defects

undercut
• Groove in the base material
• Result of improper welding
technique (high travel speed,
heat is too high)
underfill
• Groove in the weld material
• Result of improper welding
technique (inadequate filler
material and high travel speed)

overlap • Excessive weld material (may not fuse to base)

• Result of improper welding technique (welding
travel speed is too slow)
 Weld Defects
Incomplete root fusion or penetration

Excessively thick root face Too small a root gap

in a butt weld Arc (heat) input too low

Large diameter electrode Small diameter electrode

• In MMA welding, the risk of incomplete root fusion can

be increased by using the incorrect welding parameters
and electrode size to give inadequate arc energy input
and shallow penetration.
 Lack of side wall and inter-run fusion

Causes

• too narrow a joint preparation

• incorrect welding parameter settings
• poor welder technique
• magnetic arc blow Lack of side wall fusion
• Insufficient cleaning of oily or scaled surfaces

“These types of imperfection are

more likely to happen when welding
in the vertical position”
Lack of inter-run fusion
 Weld Defects
• Porosity : Causes
• absorption of N, O, and H in the molten
weld pool which is then released on
solidification to become trapped in the
weld metal.
• N and O absorption in the weld pool
Distributed porosity
usually originates from poor gas
shielding.
• H can originate from from inadequately
dried electrodes, fluxes or the workpiece
surface. Grease and oil on the surface of
the workpiece or filler wire are also
Surface breaking pores
common sources of hydrogen.
 Weld Defects
Slag inclusions
Causes
• Type of flux
• Welder technique
Best practice
• Use welding techniques to produce smooth weld beads
and adequate inter-run fusion
• Use the correct current and travel speed to avoid
Poor (convex) weld bead profile
under-cutting the sidewall which will make the slag resulted in pockets of slag being
difficult to remove trapped between the weld runs
• Remove slag between runs paying particular attention
to removing any slag trapped in crevices
• Use grinding when welding difficult butt joints otherwise
wire brushing or light chipping may be sufficient to Radiograph of slag
remove the slag. inclusions
 Weld Defects
Solidification cracking
Identification

Solidification cracks are normally

readily distinguished from other
types of cracks due to the following
characteristic factors:
Causes
• they occur only in the weld weld bead during solidification has
insufficient strength to withstand the
metal contraction stresses generated as the
weld pool solidifies. Factors which
• they normally appear as
increase the risk include:
straight lines along the
• insufficient weld bead size or shape
centreline of the weld bead
• welding under high restraint
• as the cracks are 'open', they
• material properties such as a high
are easily visible with the naked
impurity content or a relatively large
eye
amount of shrinkage on solidification
 Weld Defects

Hydrogen cracks in steels

Crack along the coarse grain

structure in the HAZ
Causes
There are three factors which combine to cause cracking:
• hydrogen generated by the welding process
• a hard brittle structure which is susceptible to cracking
• residual tensile stresses acting on the welded joint
The effects of specific factors on the risk of cracking are:
• weld metal hydrogen
• parent material composition
• parent material thickness
• stresses acting on the weld
• heat input
Visual Inspection
 Outline
• Introduction
• Basic principles
• Manual Vision Inspection
– Human Vision
– Common Inspection applications
– Equipment
• Automated or Machine Vision Inspection
– Machine Vision
– Common Inspection Applications
– Equipment
• Advantages and Limitations
 Introduction
• Visual inspection is commonly defined as “the examination
of a material, component, or product for conditions of
nonconformance using light and the eyes, alone or in
conjunction with various aids”.
• Visual inspection often also involves, shaking, listening,
feeling, and sometimes even smelling the component being
inspected.
• Visual inspection consists of at least two major processes.
– The first is a search process.
– The second is a process of combining relevant knowledge,
sensory input, and pertinent logical processes to provide
an identification that some anomaly or pattern represents
a flaw that poses a risk to the performance of the part.
• Visual inspection is commonly employed to support other
NDT methods.
• Digital detectors and computer technology have made it
possible to automate some visual inspections. This is known
as “machine vision inspection.”
 Introduction
• The quality of an inspection are affected primarily
by four factors.

– The quality of the detector (eye or camera).

– The lighting conditions.
– The capability to process the visual data.
– The level of training and attention to detail.
 Introduction –
Manual Versus Automated Inspection
• The majority of visual
inspections are completed
by an inspector, but
machine vision is becoming
more common.
• The primary advantage of an
inspector is their ability to quickly adapt to a variety of lighting
and other non-typical conditions, and their ability to use other
senses.
• The primary advantage of a machine vision inspection system is
their ability to make very consistent and rapid inspections of
specific details of a component.
• Machine vision is primarily used in production applications
where a large number of components require inspection and the
inspection conditions can be closely controlled.
 Basic Principles – Contrast Sensitivity
• Contrast sensitivity is a measure of how faded
or washed out an object can be before it
becomes indistinguishable from a uniform field
• It has been experimentally determined that the
minimum discernible difference in gray scale
level that the eye can detect is about 2% of full
brightness
• Contrast sensitivity varies with
– the size or spatial frequency
of a feature
– The lighting conditions
– Whether the object is lighter
or darker than the background

The graph to the right plots the

visibility of a spot as a function of the
above variables
Basic Principles –Light Intensity Measurement
• Effective visual inspection requires adequate
lighting.
• The type of inspection will dictate the lighting
requirements. Inspection of components with fine
detail and low contrast will require greater
illumination than components with large details
and high contrast.
• Light intensity may be measured with a suitable
light meter. The unit of measure for white light is
foot-candles (fc).
– A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct
light thrown by one standard candle at a
distance of 1 foot.
• Inspection of components with fine detail and low
contrast may require 100 foot-candles or more.
• Specification requirements for lighting should be
reviewed prior to performing an inspection.
 Basic Principles –Light Directionality

• The directionality of the

light is a very important
consideration.
• For some applications,
flat, even lighting works
well.
• For other applications,
directional lighting is
better because it
produces shadows that
are larger than the
actual flaw and easier
to detect.
 Basic Principles –Optical Illusions
Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing
visual information.

Are the horizontal lines parallel or

How many black dots do you see?
do they slope?
 Basic Principles

• For best results the inspector or machine

vision operator must have:

– A basic knowledge of material processing, forming,

machining and joining processes.
– A general understanding of design features,
application and service requirements.
– Specific instructions on what to look for and
specific accept/reject criteria.
 Inspection Applications
Applications for visual inspection and many and range
from looking a product over for obvious defect to
performing detailed inspections. Some of the common
applications include:

• Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches, excess

surface roughness, and areas void of paint or plating.
• Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection.
• Dimensional conformance.
• Precision measurements.
• Foreign object detection.
• Component location.
Inspection Applications –Flaw Detection
• Visual inspection of
manufactured
materials and
components is a cost
effective means of
identifying flaws.
• Visual inspection of a
casting reveals a crack
between a threaded
opening and a pressed
fit.
• The aluminum sand
casting has hot tears
and shrinkage at the
transition zones.
 Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
In-service inspections of
existing components and
structures is commonly
accomplished visually.
• In this example, visual
inspection of a fire escape
reveals a failure in a handrail
tube.
• The failure is in the tube seam
and is likely the result of ice
expansion.
 Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
Normal inspection practices for
highway bridges rely almost
entirely on visual inspection to
evaluate the condition of the
bridges.
 Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
Over 80 percent of all aircraft
inspections are performed
visually.
 Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
• Weld quality requirements are
commonly determined through
visual inspection.
• Many standards have established
acceptance criteria for welds.

Transverse weld crack

Slag rolled into toe of weld

 Dimensional Conformance
• Visual inspection is commonly employed for general
dimensional conformance, assembly fit, and
alignment between components

• Common applications include determining:

– Weld size and tolerance.
– Component dimensions.
– Material alignment and allowable distortion.
 Dimensional Conformance
Welds are commonly inspected for dimensional tolerance.
• There are several types of gages used to inspect welding fit up and
finished weldments.
• These gages are intended for general inspection where close tolerances
are not required.
• The gage used is determined by the application.

Palmgren gage
Fillet gage set

VWAC gage

Cambridge gage
 Dimensional Conformance
Visual inspection is commonly used to determine weld size and
tolerances according to standards and engineering
specifications

Throat measurement Leg size determination Convexity measurement

using a Palmgren gage. with fillet gage. with VWAC gage.
 Dimensional Conformance
Undercut in a weld is readily seen visually. In many cases its depth
must be measured to determine if it exceeds code requirements.

Measurement of undercut
depth with VWAC gage.
 Dimensional Conformance
Alignment/Distortion
• Visual inspection frequently involves checking
materials and components for fit and alignment.
• Many standards establish allowable tolerances for
fit and distortion.
• Structural fabrication requires dimensional
inspection of finished components prior to
shipment to the field site.
• Basic tools are used for the inspection. An
inspector will set up string lines at known
distances and plum them using a tape measure.
Measurements are then taken at various locations
and compared to code requirements. In this image a
fabricated girder is
being inspected for
distortion, sweep
and web flatness.
 Equipment

• Visual inspection equipment includes a variety of

different tools. These may range from basic rulers,
tape measures and spring type calipers to rigid or
flexible borescopes and remote crawlers with
cameras.
• Many tools have been designed for specific
applications such as the various weld gauges.
• Some of the specialized tools such as crawlers have
been designed to satisfy the inspection needs in
applications where conventional techniques are not
feasible.
Equipment – Precision Measurements

• Sliding calipers are a

precision refinement of the
common rule, which results
in greater accuracy of
measurements.
• They may incorporate
either a dial indicator or
digital readout.
• Sliding-type calipers are
commonly used to check
dimensional tolerances of
machined components,
wear on components, and
fit between components.
 Equipment – Precision Measurements

• Micrometers are precise

measurement instruments used
to make accurate direct readings
in contact measurements.
• Micrometers are designed for
inside, outside, and depth
measurements, and are available
in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes.
• Micrometers may be either
thousandth inch (.001”) or ten
thousandth inch (.0001”)
measurement capable.
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Transfer instruments
are used to take
measurements which
are transferred to
direct measurement
devices.
• They consist of
calipers, dividers,
telescoping gages and
small hole gages.
 Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Spring type calipers are available
for contact measurements of
inside and outside dimensions.
• They are useful for measuring
distances between and over
surfaces.
• They are commonly used to
transfer dimensions or sizes
between the work piece and
standard measuring devices,
such as graduated rules.
• The size of a linear or rounded
indication of a discontinuity may
be measured with dividers.
 Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Small hole gages are a type of transfer instrument used to measure small
holes or slots.
• They are generally supplied in sets with a range of 1/8” - 1/2”.
• The actual measurement is determined by transferring a properly
adjusted gage to a micrometer.
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
• Telescoping gages make
inside measurements such as
hole diameter and slot
width.
• They are designed to be
measured by a micrometer
after being set to the hole or
slot size.
• To make accurate
measurements it is
important to make sure the
telescoping gage is aligned
properly in the measuring
faces of the micrometer.
 Direct and Remote
Visual Inspection
• Many codes refer to direct visual examination as a visual
inspection which requires that access to the area is sufficient
to place the eye within 24 inches of the surface to be
examined and at an angle of not less than 30o to that surface

• If these requirements cannot be met, then remote visual

inspection may be used.

• Remote visual inspection may be accomplished with the use

of a number of optical aids such as, mirrors, magnifiers, and
rigid or flexible borescopes.
 Optical Aids
• Mirrors are valuable aids in visual
inspection, they allow the inspection of
threaded and bored holes, inside
surfaces of pipes and fittings, as well as
many others.
• Magnifiers assist the visual inspector
by enlarging the size of the object
being examined.
• Comparators are a magnifier with a
measuring capability. The comparator
has interchangeable reticles which
provide measurements for threads,
angles, linear measurement, diameters
and radii.
 Optical Aids
• Borescopes are visual aids used for the inspection of
internal surface areas.
• They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach
areas such as jet engines, cylinders, tanks, and various
enclosed chambers.
• Borescopes are available in many different diameters and
lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.
Visual Inspection With A Borescope

Clean Surface Corrosion Damage

 Optical Aids
• Advances in technology has allowed video equipment
to be adapted to portable and robotic devices.
• Portable video probes allow inspectors to remotely
perform examinations in closed chambers which are
inaccessible by convention inspection means.
• Robotics have been developed whereby cameras can
be affixed to crawlers and submersibles.
– Retrieval tools can be affixed to robotics to remove
foreign objects.
• Conventional recording techniques may
be employed for image capture and
storage with many of the remote video
inspection methods.
 Machine Vision – Basic Principles
• Machine vision technology uses an imaging system and a
computer to analyze an image and to make decisions based on
that analysis.
• In inspection applications, the machine vision optics and
imaging system enable the processor to "see" objects precisely
and thus make decisions about which component meet a
specific inspection criteria.
• Machine vision can eliminate human factor error that might
result from doing difficult, tedious, or boring tasks. It also
allows process equipment to be utilized 24 hours a day.
Machine Vision – Basic Principles
The following process steps are common to all
machine vision applications:
• Image acquisition: An optical system gathers an image, which is then
converted to a digital format and stored into computer memory.
• Image processing: A computer processor uses various algorithms to
enhance elements of the image that are of specific importance to the
process.
• Feature extraction: The processor identifies and quantifies critical
features in the image (e.g., the position of holes on a printed circuit
board, the number of pins in a connector, the orientation of a
component on a conveyor) and sends the data to a control program.
• Decision and control: The processor's control program makes
decisions based upon the data. Are the holes within specification? Is
a pin missing?
 Machine Vision - Equipment

Key System Elements

• A variety of components are
included in a machine vision
system, which depend on the
environment, the application,
and the budget. However, the
following components are
common to all vision systems :
– Front-end optics: this includes the lighting, the lens, and the camera.
– Frame grabber: this is a computer processor board that accepts the
video input from the camera, digitizes it, and stores it for analysis.
– Processor: A computer processor is required to control the vision
application.
– Control Software: Computer software is used for controlling and
executing vision tasks.
 Advantages of Visual Inspection

• Readily used on almost all materials.

• Simple to perform.
• Low in cost, (application dependent).
• Relatively quick.
• Results may be permanently recorded.
• Can be automated.
 Limitations of Visual Inspection
• Direct inspections are limited to surfaces only.
• Indirect inspections require greater inspector
knowledge and training.
• Inspector dependent, knowledge of materials and
processing, eye sight.
• Standards (workmanship) may be difficult to obtain.
 Elements in Visual Inspection
• Test Object
• Inspector
• Optical Instrument
• Illumination
• Recording
 Evaluation in Visual Inspection

• All visual tests are to be evaluated in terms of the

acceptance criteria specified in the appropriate
product standard

• The results of this test then need to be recorded for

future reference
 Conclusions on Visual Inspection
• Visual Inspections are simple quick and widely used
NDT techniques to examine the surface (exterior or
interior) for both qualitative and quantitative
assessment

• Automated visual inspection for faster mode and

required more skill.