COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

AND
MANUFACTURING
Co-ordinate Systems used in Graphics

• World Co-ordinate system (WCS)

• User Co-ordinate system (UCS)

2
 Transformations
• Transformations are used to move that object, scale it
and rotate it
• 2D Transformations
• 3D Transformations

3
Translation
• Translation involves moving the element from one
location to another.
x’ = x + m, y’ = y + n y 6

Matrix notation 4

(x’ , y’) = (x , y) + T 2

T = (m , n) – Translation matrix 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
Note: House shifts position relative to origin

4
Scaling
• Scaling of an element is used to enlarge it or to
reduce its size.
(x’ , y’) = (x , y) S

S= (Scaling Matrix)

y
6

3 6  9
3 3
   
2

1  2 3
1  1
   
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
Note: House shifts position relative to origin
5
Rotation
• The points of an object are rotated about the origin by
an angle θ
(x’ , y’) = (x , y) R

R=

y
6

2


1 6

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 6
Reflection
• A reflection is a transformation that produces a mirror
Image of an object. The mirror image for a 2-D
reflection is generated relative to an axis of reflection by
rotating the object 1800 about the reflection axis

7
8
Concatenation

• Single transformations can be combined as a

sequence of transformations.
• The objective is to accomplish a series of image
manipulations as a single transformations.
• This allows concatenated transformation to be
defined concisely and the computation can generally
be accomplished more efficiently.

9
Homogeneous Transformations
• A point (x, y) can be re-written in homogeneous
coordinates as (xh, yh, h)
• The homogeneous parameter h is a non-
zero value such that:

• We can then write any point (x, y) as (hx, hy, h)

• We can conveniently choose h = 1 so that
(x, y) becomes (x, y, 1)

10
11
 House (H )
1 2

R( )T (dx, dy ) H T (dx,dy ) R( )T (dx, dy ) H

3 4

12
 1 0 0 cos   sin  0  1 0 0  x 
 0 1  
0   sin  cos   
0   0 1   
0   y 

 Tx  Ty 1  0 0 1 Tx Ty 1 1 

13
View Port
View Port

15
Clipping
Clipping
• Clipping is the process of determining the visible
portions of a drawing lying within a window.

1. Cohen Sutherland Algorithm

2. Sutherland Hodgman Polygon Algorithm

17
Cohen Sutherland Method
• All the lines are classified to see if they are in, out or
partially in the window by doing an edge.
• The end points of the line are classified as to where
they are with reference to the window by means of a
4 digit binary code.
• The code is termed as TBRL.
T = 1, 0 otherwise : above
B = 1, 0 otherwise : below
R = 1, 0 otherwise : right
L = 1, 0 otherwise : left

18
19
• The line is inside the window if both the end points
are equal to “0000”
• The line is outside the window if both the end points
are not equal to “0000”
• The lines which are partially inside the window, they
are split at the window edge and discard the line
segment outside the window

20
Sutherland Hodgman Polygon Algorithm

• Clipping Polygon (“n” sided polygon – “n” vertices)

Clip Left Clip Right

Clip Top Clip Bottom 21

To clip an area against an individual boundary:
– Consider each vertex in turn against the boundary
– Vertices inside the boundary are saved for clipping
against the next boundary
– Vertices outside the boundary are clipped
– If we proceed from a point inside the boundary to one
outside, the intersection of the line with the boundary
is saved
– If we cross from the outside to the inside intersection
point and the vertex are saved

22
 S

S
P
I

P
Save Point P Save Point I

P S

I P

S
No Points Saved Save Points I & P

23
Hidden Line
 Hidden
Line
Removal
Hidden line Removal
• Determination of hidden edges & surfaces-challenging
problem in computer graphics
• Removal algorithm – built into local hardware processors of
graphic display to speed up their execution
• Removal algorithm – two types i.e. Hidden line & hidden
surface
• Former supports vector devices while latter supports raster
display
27
28
 Classification of HLR Algorithm
1. Object-Space Algorithms: (the object definition directly visibility
is decided by Line of surface by line or surface)
 Back-Face Removal
 Depth Sorting (Painter Algorithm)
 Area Subdivision (Quadtrees and Octrees)
 Binary Space Partition Trees
2. Image-Space Methods algorithms (the projected image visibility
is decided point by point)
 Depth Buffer (Z-buffer)
 Scan-line
 Depth sorting (Painter Algorithm)
29
Back-Face Removal
Back-face Removal
• If the interior of the polyhedron is not exposed by the front
clipping plane then those polygons whose surface normal points
away from the camera (observer) lie on a part of the polyhedron
which is completely blocked by other polygons that are closer.
Such invisible faces called back faces can be eliminated from
processing leaving all the front faces.
• 50% of the surfaces removed from the database, which can then
be processed by the other algorithms

31
DEPTH-BUFFER METHOD
• compares surface depths at each pixel position on the
projection plane.
• This procedure is also referred to as the z-buffer method
• It utilizes the principle that for each of the pixel locations, only
that point with the smallest z-depth is displayed.
Normalized view volume

yv
xv

zv
front =
visible pixel View plane
32
• for each pixel position (x, y) on the view plane, object depths can
be compared by comparing z values.
• Surface S1, is closest at this position, so its surface intensity
value at (x, y) is saved.
• A depth buffer is used to store depth values for each (x, y)
position as surfaces are processed, and the refresh buffer stores
the intensity values for each position.
• Initially, all positions in the depth buffer are set to 0 (minimum
depth), and the refresh buffer is initialized to the background
intensity.
• Each surface listed in the polygon tables is then processed, one
scan line at a time, calculating the depth (z value) at each (x, y)
pixel position. 33
• It is simple
• Amount of storage required
• It is difficult in implementing anti-aliasing, transparency and
translucency effects.
• Pre-filtering antialiasing techniques is not easily available
• Transparency and translucency effects, the pixels may be
written to the frame buffer in incorrect order, leading to error.

34
Painters algorithm (Depth-Sort)
• This utilises the principles of principle of painting the polygons
into the frame buffer in the order of decreasing distance from the
viewpoint.

36
• Sort all the polygons according to the smallest z-coordinate of
each
• Resolve the ambiguities when the z-coordinates of the polygons
overlap, by splitting the polygons
• Scan and convert each polygon order from the back to front
yv

xv 37