Nondestructive evaluation (NDE)

Introduction to NDE

WHAT IS NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION?

Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is the examination of an object with

technology that does not affect the object’s future usefulness.
—American Society of Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)

We find both the general concepts and uses of NDE not only in industry but in our
everyday lives.

HOW IS NDE APPLIED?

The process of NDE is often dictated by the specific case. The applications may
impose requirements on the method and procedure, such as portability (for field
use), speed of data acquisition and reduction (for high-speed process control), and
environmental hardening (for operation in harsh environments).
 UNDERSTANDING THE NDE CHOICES

The basic levels of choosing an NDE method are:

1. Understanding the physical nature of the material property or discontinuity to be inspected
2. Understanding the underlying physical processes that govern NDE methods
3. Understanding the physical nature of the interaction of the probing field (or material) with
the test material
4. Understanding the potential and limitations of available technology
5. Considering economic, environmental, regulatory, and other factor

To employ any NDE method, we need to have a reasonable knowledge of what we are looking
for—material properties, a discontinuity such as a void or crack, sheet or coating thickness, etc.

We must also have a basic knowledge of how the various NDE methods work.

In selecting an NDE method, we must be aware of the potentials and limitations of the existing
technology.

Is it cost effective to employ NDE? Is speed of inspection a factor?

Types of NDE Method:
- Liquid Penetrant
- Ultrasound
- Magnetic Particle
- Eddy Current
- Acoustic Emission
- Radiology

Liquid Penetrant
Penetrant testing (PT) is a rapid, simple, inexpensive, and sensitive nondestructive testing
(NDT) method.

It allows the inspection of a large variety of materials, component parts, and systems for
discontinuities that are open to the surface.

Since PT is portable, it is often used in remote locations.

Using PT effectively requires:
-Discontinuities open to the surface of the part (subsurface discontinuities or surface
discontinuities not open to the surface aren’t detected)
-Special cleaning of parts
-Good eyesight
 Crack

Cracks are surface discontinuities made visible by a penetrant

Criteria of penetrant: the penetrant must be a strikingly different color (contrast) from the
surface and must exit the discontinuity under appropriate conditions.
A detailed visual examination of the surface(s) to be tested should be conducted prior to
beginning any NDT.
All rust, dirt, protective coatings, or any other interfering materials must be removed or
cleaned from the surface. Then the penetrant can be applied to the surface and allowed to
enter the discontinuity.
Procedures determine (a) the type of penetrant and (b) the dwell time, or length of time for
the penetrant to enter the defects. After the penetrant has entered the defects, excess
(surface) penetrant must be removed—without removing the penetrant that has entered the
defects.

After this second cleaning, another material, called the developer, is placed on the surface.
The developer draws some of the penetrant from the defects, and provides a contrasting
background to make the penetrant easier to see. After the indications from the
penetrant/developer have been interpreted and perhaps recorded, the surface is cleaned a
third time, to remove the developer and any remaining penetrant.

PT’s Potential
Industries include metal production; metal fabrication; automotive, marine, and aerospace
manufacture and maintenance; petrochemical industry, electrical power generation,
electronics manufacture; and composite materials manufacture and maintenance.

PT finds three classes of discontinuities:

(a) inherent discontinuities in raw materials,
(b) fabrication discontinuities in manufactured components, and
(c) service induced discontinuities.
Advantages and Disadvantages

FUNDAMENTALS
The basic principles of penetrant testing:

Fluid flow- surface tension, contact angle and surface wetting, capillarity, dwell
time

Illumination and detection.

TECHNIQUES

Despite advances in penetrant-testing science, the various PT techniques all

follow the same basic method as the oil-and-whiting testing of 100 years ago.

1. Basic Method

The steps for any penetrant test are as follows:

1. Performing a detailed visual examination of the specimen to be tested
2. Preparing specimen surface
3. Verifying the temperature of the specimen and the penetrant materials
4. Applying penetrant to specimen surface
5. Dwell time (time for penetrant to be drawn into the defects)
6. Removing excess penetrant from specimen surface
7. Applying developer (in order to draw penetrant from discontinuities to
surface, and to enhance the visibility of the indication)
8. Locating and interpreting indications
 FIG: Schematics of penetrant testing: (a) application of penetrant to
clean surface, (b) dwell time (penetrant enters defect), (c) removal of excess
penetrant, (d) application of developer to surface, (e) observation and interpretation
of indication(s).

2. Cleaning

3. Types of Penetrants

Any good penetrant has two basic functions: (a) a highly visible medium that acts as a
discontinuity indicator, and (b) a fluid carrier that distributes the indicator over the
material surface and into the discontinuity depths.

Two major classifications of penetrants are:

Type I: fluorescent penetrants (brightness contrast)
Type II: visible or dye penetrants (color contrast)
 Further classification relates to the technique of penetrant removal:
-Water-washable
-Lipophilic postemulsified (oil-based)
-Solvent wipe
-Hydrophilic postemulsified (water-based)

Visible dye or color-contrast penetrants are inspected under normal lighting.

Fluorescent penetrants require a special ultraviolet (UV, or ‘‘black light,’’ wavelength

320 to 400 nm) light source.

4. Temperature
Temperature of the specimen makes an important difference in the formulation of
the penetrant and in the dwell time. If the surface of the specimen is too hot, the solvent may
evaporate before the penetrant can enter the discontinuity.
Dwell Time
Dwell time (or penetration time) has been defined as the time between applying
the penetrant and removing the excess, i.e., the time necessary for the penetrant to
wet the surface and penetrate the discontinuities.
Removing Excess Penetrant
Removing excess penetrant from the specimen surface without removing it from the
discontinuity may be done in four different ways:
-Water washing
-Postemulsified lipophilic (oil-based)
-Solvent wipe
-Postemulsified hydrophilic (water-based)

Figure 2.13 Picture of putting cleaner=penetrant remover Figure 2.14 Picture of cleaning excess penetrant from
on clean toweling specimen surface.
Types of Developers

The developer (a) acts as a blotter to draw entrapped residual penetrant

from the flaw recesses; and (b) spreads the penetrant over the surface, increasing
the visibility of the indication.

The developer’s primary ingredient is a powder, the function of which is to make visible the
location of the flaws.

The powder draws the penetrant from the flaw by a combination of absorption (where the
penetrant is drawn into the powder particles) and adsorption (where the penetrant adheres to
the surface of the particles).

The developer also provides a high-contrast background to increase the visibility of the
penetrant.

Developers are classified by the carrier mechanism that facilitates their application:
-Dry powders
-Water soluble
-Water suspendable
-Solvent suspendable
Examination and Interpretation

Examining and interpreting PT test results requires skill and experience. You
need to understand the process of PT, and you need to know the types of defects,
as well as false indications, you may encounter.

Test results are generally recorded photographically.

Figure 2.16 Picture of a visible penetrant

indication of a crack in a weld
 Final Cleaning

When PT is complete, the specimen (unless it is to be scrapped) must be cleaned

to remove any penetrant materials still on the surface or in crevices or discontinuities.

Specifications and Standards

Many organizations provide specification and standards for PT and for personnel
that perform the testing.

American Society for Testing and Materials: ASTM E-165, E-1220, E-1417, and E-
1418 are standard test methods for the various PT classifications and procedures

Aerospace Materials Specification: AMS-2645, AMS-2646

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

American Society for Nondestructive Testing

Department of Defense

Society of Automotive Engineer

APPLICATIONS

To understand PT further, consider these specific examples: the fabrication and

aerospace industries, petrochemical plants, automotive and marine manufacture
and maintenance, and the electrical power industry.

Fabrication Industries: Fabrication industry processes in which materials are welded,

cut, bent, or machined commonly produce surface defects such as cracks and pits.

Aerospace Industries: Much of the aerospace industry uses nonmagnetic, lightweight

alloys, which preclude magnetic testing, so PT is greatly depended upon in the
manufacture and service testing of aircraft and spacecraft.

Petrochemical Plants: The nature of the materials in petrochemical plants requires

considerable testing of pipes and vessels before and during use.

Automotive and Marine Manufacture and Maintenance: The huge numbers of parts
for vehicles and ships require fast, easy testing. Completed systems, wherever they
may be, require testing as well.

Electrical Power Industry: The pressures and temperatures on vessels and piping in
power plants necessitate testing both at fabrication and regularly during use.