Ultrasound

What Ultrasonic Waves Are, and How They Propagate

If a tree falls in the forest and no one is around, does it make a sound?

Ultrasonic waves are high- (‘‘ultra’’) frequency sound (‘‘sonic’’) waves: they vibrate at a
frequency above 20,000 vibrations per second, or 20,000 Hertz (Hz)—too fast to be audible
to humans.

Your ear can detect frequencies between about 20 Hz (for example, the sound from a
bumblebee’s wing) and 17 kHz (the sound from a whistle).

Any sound at a higher frequency is ultrasonic—and inaudible. In NDE applications,

ultrasonic frequencies typically range from 50 kHz to as high as several GHz.

What do sounds propagate (travel) through?

Sound waves—faster in solids, slower in air

Ultrasonic wave propagation in solids is the fundamental phenomenon underlying

ultrasonic NDE. We can use the features of an ultrasonic wave (velocity, attenuation)
to characterize a material’s composition, structure, elastic properties, density, and
geometry
 Figure 3.1 Ultrasonic reflection off of a circular defect.

Ultrasonics can be used to detect and describe flaws in a material. Flaws cause scattering of
ultrasonic waves, in the same way a stationary rock reflects a water wave (Figure 3.1). This
scattering can be detected as an echo. Using the properties of the echo, we can determine the
position, size, and shape of a flaw.
Technique Overview

The basic technique of ultrasonic inspection is simple: a transducer transforms a

voltage pulse into an ultrasonic pulse (wave). One places the transducer onto a
specimen and transmits the pulse into the test object. The pulse travels through
the object, responding to its geometry and mechanical properties.

The signal is either (a) transmitted to another transducer (pitch–catch method) or

(b)reflected back to the original transducer (pulse–echo method). Either way, the
signal is transformed back into an electrical pulse, which is observed on an oscilloscope.

The observed signal can give a detailed account of the specimen under investigation.

Using either method, we can determine:

-The ultrasonic wave velocity in or thickness of the specimen
-The presence of a flaw, defect, or delamination, and its size, shape, position, and
composition
-Material properties, such as density and elastic constants (Young’s Modulus,
Poisson’s ratio, etc.)
-Part geometry or the nature of layered media
Two basic methods

FIGURE 3.4 The two basic methods of transmitting and

receiving ultrasound: (a) pitch–catch (separate transducers)
and (b) pulse–echo (single transducer).
Applications

Ultrasonic NDE has nearly innumerable applications in the aircraft, piping, semiconductor,
fabrication, railroad, power, and medical industries.

-In the transportation industry (where a catastrophic failure can lead to the deaths
of hundreds of people), ultrasonic NDE is used to detect cracks and fatigue
damage on safety-critical parts.

-Rotors of military helicopters, which used to be replaced at regular intervals whether they
needed it or not, can now be tested with ultrasonics and replaced only when necessary
(retirement for cause), saving both time and money.

-Ultrasonics can also detect ice formation on aircraft wings, to determine if de-icing is
necessary before takeoff—or in midair.

In addition to detecting flaws and determining properties in materials, ultrasonics can

also be used for imaging.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 Ultrasonic NDE is a very flexible and robust technique.
 Only two NDE methods can reveal substantial subsurface flaws in materials: ultrasonic
and X-ray methods.
 Unlike X-ray techniques, however, ultrasonic methods pose no environmental or health
risks.
 Ultrasonic methods offer contacting as well as noncontacting approaches. (Laser
generated/detected ultrasound allows stand off distances of up to several meters.)
 Ultrasonic probes can also be designed to test complex geometries. Finally, ultrasonic
detection can be used for all types of materials from biological to metal to ceramics.

Disadvantages
 Require a highly experienced technician.
 Although noncontacting methods exist, in the majority of cases the transducer must be in
contact with the object, through a water- or gel-coupling layer.
 Ultrasonic waves typically cannot reveal planar flaws (cracks) whose length lies parallel to
the direction of wave travel.
 Ultrasonic methods can be expensive to operate.
Reflection and Refraction at an Interface

The behavior or change of a propagating ultrasonic wave as it encounters a

boundary is fundamental to ultrasonic material evaluation. Voids, cracks, inclusions, and
coatings can be distinguished, provided that they possess different
elastic properties from the parent material.

We can think of a parent material containing a void, crack, etc. as two materials having
different specific acoustic impedances (Z).

Deviation of, or changes in, the wave as it encounters a boundary (interface) can take one or
more of the following forms:
-A reflection and/or transmission
-A propagation of the wave along the interface
-A change in direction of travel (refraction)
-A conversion from one type of wave to another type of wave (mode
conversion)
 Figure 3.13 Reflection and transmission of a normal Figure 3.14 Pressure amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves at
incident wave at a boundary. (a) a steel=water interface and (b) water=steel interface. Incident wave is a
longitudinal mode and normalized to unity.

Echo Transmission
In a typical application of ultrasonic NDE, the energy from a transducer is transmitted into the
specimen, and then the energy is transmitted from the specimen into the transducer—an echo.
In this scenario, at first determine how much of the wave is transmitted into the specimen, then
determine how much of the wave is received at the transducer, as well as other any boundary
in the path of the ultrasonic wave.
TRANSDUCERS FOR GENERATION AND DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

Where do ultrasonic waves come from?

Ultrasonic waves are created (or transduced) from electrical or optical signals by
ultrasonic transducers.

These devices also detect ultrasonic waves by transducing the ultrasonic waves back into
electrical or optical signals.

Various transducers offer different methods for creating ultrasonic waves; the most common
are piezoelectric, EMAT, and laser (optical) methods.

Piezoelectric transducer
Transducer Coupling Medium

Piezoelectric transducers need some form of coupling medium to transmit the ultrasound
between the transducer and the test specimen. The large acoustic
impedance mismatch between the transducer and air prohibits any air gap between the sensor
and the specimen.

The simplest solution is immersion testing—immersing both the transducer and the specimen in
a water bath. When immersion is not practical, contact transducers utilize either a dry or wet
coupling material. Thin latex works well as a dry couplant. Grease, gels, or liquids applied
manually or automatically work well as wet coupling materials.

Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)

Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) allow for high-speed ultrasonic inspection, as

well as for the interrogation of materials where surface contact is
prohibited.

The ultrasonic transduction mechanism for EMATs generates ultrasonic waves in a two-step
process: (a) magnetic induction (a simple transformer), and (b) the force created when current
flows through a magnetic field (Lorentz force).
 Figure 3.40 EMAT for generating transverse waves (a) 3-D view
and (b) directivity pattern.

Figure 3.39 EMAT for generating longitudinal waves

(a) 3-D view, (b) footprint depicting copper shield to
remove unwanted eddy currents, and
(c) directivity pattern.
INSPECTION PRINCIPLES

To perform an ultrasonic inspection, one need to select:

-The variable to be measured

-The appropriate transducer for generating a specific wave type (longitudinal, shear, surface,
or focused)
-The transducer configuration: pitch–catch or pulse–echo
-The type of excitation pulse: spike, tone burst, or continuous wave (CW)
-The type of signal processing and display method, e.g., time vs. amplitude or position on the
part vs. attenuation, as well as whether a point measurement or an area scan will fit the
application better

Measurements

Ultrasonic inspection directly measures four variables: time of flight, amplitude,

phase, and frequency.

Time of flight
When an ultrasonic pulse is sent through an object and then reflected (or transmitted), the
wave transit time can be measured, and is called the time of flight.
Transducer Configurations

After choosing a transducer and the coupling medium, and deciding whether to
use intermediate systems (wedges, lenses, or arrays), one next has to decide
between the two basic transducer configurations for generating and receiving the
ultrasonic wave
Typically oscilloscope display on an ultrasonic pulser-receiver system configured
in pulse–echo mode.
 ST - 5
Time 5 Minutes

1. What are the typical range of ultrasonic frequencies used

in NDE applications? 1

2. Write the basic techniques of ultrasonic testing. 4

3. Name the basic methods of ultrasonic testing. 2

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonic

testing? 3