Statistical Treatment

of Data
Statistical treatment of data is when you apply some form of
statistical method to a data set to transform it from a group of
meaningless numbers into meaningful output.
Frequency and Percentage
This was used to describe the profile of the respondents.
The formula is:
%= f x 100
N
where:
% = percentage,
f = frequency of responses, and
N = total number of respondents
An analyst studying these data might want to know not only how long batteries last, but also
what proportion of the batteries falls into each class interval of battery life.

Battery life, Tally Frequency (f)

minutes (x)
360–369 2 2
370–379 3 3
380–389 5 5
390–399 7 7
400–409 5 5
410–419 4 4
420–429 3 3
430–439 1 1
Total 30
 Life of AA batteries, in minutes

Battery life, Frequency (f) Percent

minutes (x) frequency
360–369 2 7
370–379 3 10
380–389 5 17
390–399 7 23
400–409 5 17
410–419 4 13
420–429 3 10
430–439 1 3
Total 30
Weighted Mean
This was computed to determine the average response of the respondents on the
various factors considered in the study. The formula is

Formula :
∑WF
WM = N
where:
WM= weighted mean,
W = weights assigned,
F = frequencies for each option, 
∑WF = sum of all weighted scores obtained by a sample, and
N = number of respondents in the sample
 Similar to the student grade example, we can
calculate the weighted mean (in this case, the
For example, a student may use a weighted mean in expected return) of the stock by summing the
order to calculate his/her percentage grade in a course. products of the probabilities and returns.

Table 1. Table 2.
Likert Scale Method
A Likert scale is a unidimensional scale that researchers use to collect respondents’
attitudes and opinions.
For example:
I believe that ecological questions are the most important issues facing human
beings today.

Strongly Disasgree Undecided Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Likert Scale Method
How can you analyze data from a Likert scale?
Statistics you can use are:
• Summarize using a median or a mode (not a mean as it is ordinal scale data ); the
mode is probably the most suitable for easy interpretation.
• Display the distribution of observations in a bar chart (it can’t be a histogram,
because the data is not continuous).
Likert Scale Method

Strength
 quantitative data is obtained, which means that the data can be analyzed with relative
ease.

Limitation
 the validity of the Likert scale attitude measurement can be compromised due to social
desirability.
Pearson Product Moment Correlation

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation is one of the measures of correlation

which quantifies the strength as well as the direction of such relationship. It is
usually denoted by the Greek letter ρ (rho).
Pearson Product Moment Correlation

This is used to determine the significance of relationship among the given

variables such as:
students’ performance in the basic education and the teaching competencies of
teachers
exam performance and time spent revising
depression and length of unemployment
What values can the Pearson correlation coefficient take?

The Pearson correlation coefficient, r, can take a range of values from +1 to -1.
Analysis of Variance

This is used to test the significance of difference of means of two or more groups
that are to be determined at one time.

They help you to figure out if you need to reject the null hypothesis or accept the
alternate hypothesis.
What Does “One-Way” or “Two-Way Mean?
One-way or two-way refers to the number of independent variables (IVs) in your
Analysis of Variance test.

• One-way has one independent variable (with 2 levels).

• Two-way has two independent variables (it can have multiple levels).
Analysis of Variance
Examples of when you might want to test different groups:
 A group of psychiatric patients are trying three different therapies:
counseling, medication and biofeedback. You want to see if one therapy is better
than the others.
 A manufacturer has two different processes to make light bulbs. They want
to know if one process is better than the other.
 Students from different colleges take the same exam. You want to see if one
college outperforms the other.
t – Test

This is used to test the significant of difference between two independent

variables.

It is often used in hypothesis testing to determine whether a process or treatment

actually has an effect on the population of interest, or whether two groups are
different from one another.
t – Test

 The null hypothesis (H0) is that the true difference between these group means is
zero.

 The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is that the true difference is different from zero.
When to use a t-test

The t-test assumes your data:

1. are independent
2. are (approximately) normally distributed.
3. have a similar amount of variance within each group being compared (a.k.a.
homogeneity of variance)
What type of t-test should I use?
One-sample, two-sample, or paired t-test?
• If the groups come from a single population (e.g. measuring before and after an
experimental treatment), perform a paired t-test.
• If the groups come from two different populations (e.g. two different species, or people from
two separate cities), perform a two-sample t-test (a.k.a. independent t-test).
• If there is one group being compared against a standard value (e.g. comparing the acidity of
a liquid to a neutral pH of 7), perform a one-sample t-test.
One-tailed or two-tailed t-test?
• If you only care whether the two populations are different from one another, perform a two-
tailed t-test.
• If you want to know whether one population mean is greater than or less than the other,
perform a one-tailed t-test.
T-test formula

t is the t-value
x1 and x2 are the means of the two groups being
compared
s2 is the pooled standard error of the two groups
n1 and n2 are the number of observations in each of the
groups
Interpreting test results
Decision of Hypothesis
• If the computed results of the test of statistics
is lower than the critical value of the test statistics, the null
hypothesis is accepted
at 0.05 level of significance.
• If the computed results of the test statistics
is greater than the critical value of the test statistics, the null
hypothesis is rejected
at 0.05 level of significance.
• In reporting statistical tests of significance, include information concerning the
value of the test, the degree of freedom, the probability level and the direction of
the effect.

• The findings are compared and contrasted with that of other previous studies
and interpretations are made thereof.
Are you a good researcher?
Research Oriented
Efficient
Scientific
Effective
Active
Resourceful
Creative
Honest
Economical
Religious
 Top 10 Qualities of Good Academic Research
• It is based on the work of others.
• It can be replicated and doable .
• It is generalisable to other settings.
• It is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory. In a way that it has the potential to suggest
directions for future research.
• It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
• It is incremental.
• It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the world.
• It clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.
• Valid and verifiable such that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be
verified by you and others.
• The researcher is sincerely interested and/or invested in this research.
THANK YOU!