DENTAL

CERAMICS
NISHU PRIYA
1 S T YEAR PGT
CONTENTS
⚫ Introduction
⚫ History of dental ceramics
⚫ Structure
⚫ Composition
⚫ Properties
⚫ Classification
⚫ Metal-ceramic systems: Composition and Properties
⚫ Components of metal-ceramic restoration
⚫ Fabrication of metal-ceramic prosthesis
⚫ Bonding mechanisms
⚫ Strengthening of metal ceramic
⚫ Advances
⚫ References
 INTRODUCTION
DENTAL CERAMICS : An inorganic compound with non-metallic
properties typically consisting of oxygen and one or more metallic or
semi-metallic elements that is formulated to produce the whole part of
a ceramic based dental prosthesis. – GPT 7

The word Ceramic is derived from the

Greek word “keramos”, which
literally means ‘burnt stuff’, but which
has come to mean more specifically
a material produced by burning or
firing.
STRUCTURE
⚫ Ceramics can appear as either crystalline or non- crystalline
(amorphous solids or glasses).
⚫ The mechanical and optical properties of dental ceramics mainly
depend on the nature and the amount of crystalline phase present.

Properties of glassy phase:

• Brittleness Properties of crystalline phase:
• Non- directional fracture • Controls coefficient of
pattern thermal expansion
• Translucency • Increases strength
• Surface tension
• Insulating properties
NON- CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS
⚫ These are a mixture of crystalline minerals
(feldspar, silica and alumina) in an amorphous
(non- crystalline matrix of glass) vitreous
phase.
⚫ Their structures are characterized by chains of
(SiO4)4− tetrahedra in which Si4+ cations are
positioned at the center of each tetrahedron
with O− anions at each of the four corners.

⚫ The atomic bonds in this glass structure have

both a covalent and ionic character thus
making it stable.
⚫ Alkali cations such as
potassium or sodium tend to
disrupt silicate chains leading
to lower sintering temperatures
and increased coefficients of
thermal expansion.
CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS
⚫ Regular dental porcelain, being of a glassy nature is
largely non crystalline and exhibits only a short range
order in atomic arrangement.
⚫ The only true crystalline ceramic used in restorative dentistry
is Alumina; which is one of the hardest and probably the
strongest oxides known.
⚫ Crystalline ceramics may have ionic or covalent bonds
⚫ Ceramics are reinforced with crystalline inclusions such as
alumina and leucite into the glass matrix to strengthen the
material and improve its fracture resistance.
GLASS FORMATION
This process of
When silica melts, it produces an
forming a glass is
extremely viscous liquid called ‘Vitrification’.

cools rapidly

Forms a glassy solid called Fused

Quartz.
HISTORY OF DENTAL CERAMICS
• Stone chips were shaped into tools by a process
called flaking.
Stone • Chert, flint, ignimbrite, shale, lava, quartz,
age silicified limestone

• Etruscans made teeth of ivory and bone

700 BC

• The first porcelain tooth material was patented in

1789 by de Chemant, a French dentist in
collaboration with Duchateau, a French
1789 pharmacist
 • Fonzi, an Italian dentist, invented a
“terrometallic” teeth. Individual porcelain
1808 teeth posterior porcelain blocks

• Planteau, a French dentist, introduced

porcelain teeth to the United States.
• Peale, an artist, developed a baking process
1817 in Philadelphia.
1822

• Charles Land introduced one of the first

ceramic crowns to dentistry.
1903
 • most important breakthrough described
formulations of feldspathic porcelain by
Weinstein and Weinstein (1962) and
1962 Weinstein et al. (1962).

• The first commercial porcelain was

developed by VITA Zahnfabrik.
1963

• Mc Lean & Hughes developed aluminous

core ceramics
1965
 • controlled crystallization of a glass (Dicor)
was demonstrated by Adair and Grossman
1984
• IPS Empress , In Ceram Zirconia, IPS
Empress2 were used for ceramic
1990 prostheses.

• Duceram LFC was introduced

1992
WHY DENTAL CERAMICS?
Refractory
nature
Long term
insulator colour
stability

Dental
ceramic
s
Can be
formed into Chemically
precise inert
shapes
aesthetics
DRAWBACKS

Low fracture
toughness

Brittleness

High wear
resistance
CERAMICS
Uses or Firing
indications temperature
a) anterior and posterior
a) Ultralow fusing -<850oo C
crown
b) veneer b) Low fusing -850-1100oo C
c) post and core
c) Medium fusing-
d) fixed dental
prosthesis 1101-1300oo C
e) ceramic stain
d) High fusing - >1300oo C
f) glaze
⚫ Medium- and high-fusing porcelains
are used for the production of
denture teeth.

⚫ The low-fusing and ultralow-fusing

types are used as veneering ceramics
for crown and bridge construction.

⚫ Some of the ultralow-fusing porcelains are

used for titanium and titanium alloys.
 Processing Principal
method crystal phase

i.i. Casting a)
a) Feldspathic porcelain
ii.
ii. Sintering b)
b) Leucite-based glass ceramic
iii.
iii. Partial sintering and glass c)
c) Lithia-based glass-ceramic
infiltration d)
d) Aluminous porcelain
iv.
iv. Slip casting and sintering e)
e) Alumina
v.
v. Heat press f)f) Glass-infused alumina,
vi.
vi. CAD-CAM milling g)
g) Glass-infused spinel
vii.
vii. Copy-milling h)
h) Glass-infused zirconia,
i)i) Glass ceramic
 Based on
microstructure

i. Amorphous glass
ii. Crystalline
iii. Polycrystalline

Translucency

i. Opaque
ii. Translucent
iii. Transparent

J. Robert KellyJADA, Vol. 139 http://jada.ada.org September 2008

COMPOSITION
⚫ Dental ceramics are mainly composed with crystalline minerals and glass matrix.

• Feldspar - 60 to 80% - basic glass former

• Kaolin - 3 to 5 % - binder
• Silica - 15 to 25% - filler
• Alumina - 8 to 20 % - glass former
• Oxides of Zirconium, Titanium, Tin - opacifiers
• Oxides of sodium, potassium, calcium - glass modifiers
• Metal pigments - colour matching
Feldspar
• naturally occurring crystalline rocks
• Forms- potash feldspar and soda feldspar(albite).
• It is the lowest melting compound and melts first on firing.
• Pure feldspathic glass is colorless and transparent
Role of feldspar :
Glass phase formation: During firing, the feldspar fuses and forms a
glassy phase that softens and flows slightly allowing the porcelain
powder particles to coalesce together.

1150 ⁰C -1530 ⁰C
Feldspar crystals of leucite + liquid glass
Incongruent melting

Exhibit liquid phase sintering

Leucite formation:
Potassium aluminium silicate mineral
Silica:

• exist in many different forms-crystalline quartz,

crystoballite, crystalline tridymite, non – crystalline
fused silica.
• Quartz crystals (non- crystalline form) are used
for manufacturing dental porcelain.
• Provides strength and hardness to porcelain
during firing.
• It remains relatively unchanged during and
after firing
Kaolin

• a type of clay material which is usually obtained

from igneous rock containing alumina- hydrated
aluminum silicate
• Kaolin acts as a binder and increases the
moldability of the unfired porcelain.
• It also imparts opacity to the porcelain
restoration so dental porcelains are formulated
with limited quantity of kaolin.
Glass modifiers

• are used as fluxes

• potassium, sodium and calcium ions- break bonds
between silica tetrahedron- move easily at lower
temperatures
• lower the softening temperature and increase the
fluidity
• Increase thermal expansion
• High concentration of glass modifiers decrease chemical
durability of glass
• Boric oxide fluxes (B2O3) can behave as a glass
modifier to form its own glass network.
Color pigments
Metal oxide frits are fused to provide the characteristic shade

Metal oxides Color

Titanium oxide Yellowish brown
Nickel oxide or iron brown
Copper oxide green
Manganese oxide lavender
Cobalt oxide blue
Zirconium oxide, alumina, white
silica
MANUFACTURING
Raw materials are mixed together in a refractory crucible and
heated to a temperature well above their fusion temperature

Glass and crystalline phases are produced

Fused mass is quenched in water

Shatters into small fragments of glass- fritting

Ball milled to achieve uniform particles,

opacifiers and pigments are added

Manufacturing completed
METAL-CERAMIC SYSTEM
Consist of cast metallic framework (core) on which at least two layers of
ceramics are baked
COMPOSITION

• Feldspathic porcelain is used for metal bonding

• Higher alkali content- to raise the coefficient of thermal expansion- helps in
bonding with metal
• Silicate glass
• The opaquer powder -high content of opacifiers- to mask the underlying metal
CLASSIFICATION

1. Cast metal ceramic restorations

 Cast noble metal alloys (feldspathic porcelain)
 Cast base metal alloys (feldspathic porcelain)
 Cast titanium (ultra low fusing porcelain)
2. Swaged metal ceramic restorations
 Gold alloy foil coping (Renaissance, Captek)
 Bonded platinum foil coping
REQUIREMENTS FOR METAL- CERAMIC SYSTEM
⚫ To bond to alloys suitable for the copings, porcelains must
have a sufficiently
o Low sintering temperature
o CTEs closely matched to those of the alloys.

⚫ Both the metal and the ceramic must have coefficients of

thermal expansion and contraction that are closely matched
such that the metal must have a slightly higher value to
avoid the development of undesirable residual tensile
stresses in the porcelain.

⚫ Ceramic must wet the surface of alloy readily such that the
contact angle is less that or equal to 60 degrees to prevent
void formation.
⚫ A good bond between metal and ceramic surfaces is required
⚫ Adequate stiffness and strength of the alloy core is necessary to
decrease the stress in porcelain
⚫ Alloys should have high sag resistance as the distortion of alloy will
compromise the fit of prosthesis
⚫ Alloy should have high proportional limit and high modulus of
elasticity as they share greater proportion of stress compared to
porcelain
ALLOYS FOR METAL-CERAMIC
SYSTEM
Alloys - Noble metal alloys
a) Gold - Platinum
System - Base-metal alloys
b) Gold – Platinum - Silver
a) Nickel - Chromium
c) Gold - Palladium
b) Cobalt - Chromium
d) Palladium - silver c) Other systems
e) High palladium
PREPARATION OF CAST METAL
CERAMIC RESTORATIONS
⚫ Copings and frameworks for metal-ceramic prostheses are produced by:
a) Casting of molten metal
b) CAD-CAM machining
c) Electrolytic deposition techniques
d) Swaged metal processes
Most common method is melting and
casting.
• A wax pattern of restoration constructed
• Cast in metal
• High melting temperature of alloys-
phosphate bonded investment
Metal preparation
• Clean metal surface essential for good
bonding
• Oil from fingers and other sources–
possible contaminant
• Cleanse surface
• Finish with clean ceramic bonded
stones/sintered diamonds
• Final sandblasting with high purity alumina
Degassing and oxidizing
• Heat in porcelain furnace to burn
off any impurities to the form thin
oxide layer.
• Degas the interior structure of alloy
Opaqer
• Mask/cover the metal frame and
prevent it from being visible
• Bond the veneering porcelains to the
underlying frame
• Condensed on the oxidized surface at
a thickness of approximately 0.3 mm
• Translucent porcelain is applied
• Porcelain powder is applied by the
condensation methods
 MANIPULATION
sintering/
Surface
condensatio
Pre-heating/
n/
drying
packing
treatments
firing

c
o
ol
in
g
 METHODS OF CONDENSATION:
⚫Porcelain for ceramic and metal-ceramic prostheses as well Binders
• Distilled water
as for other applications is supplied as a fine powder designed
• Propylene
to be mixed with water or binder and condensed into the glycol
desired form. • Alcohol/Formal
dehyde
⚫The porcelain is usually built to shape using a liquid binder to
hold the particles together. This process of packing the
particles and removing the liquid is known as condensation.

⚫ This provides two benefits:

a) Lower firing shrinkage
b) Less porosity in the fired porcelain.
 Vibration:
Mild vibrations are used to densely pack the wet powder upon
the underlying matrix. The excess water comes to the
surface and is blotted with a tissue paper.

Spatulation:
A small spatula is used, to apply and smoothen the wet
porcelain. This action brings excess water to the surface
where it is removed.

Brush technique:
The dry powder is placed by a brush to the side opposite
from an increment of wet porcelain. As the water is drawn
toward the dry powder, the wet particles are pulled together.
Dentin
• Pink powder+distilled water/supplied liquid
• The main bulk of tooth
• A portion of the dentin in the incisal area is cut back for
enamel porcelain.
Enamel
• White powder
• build the restoration
• Transparent porcelains used near incisal edges
Gingival porcelain
• Darker -cervical portion
Steps of condensation

Build Build
up of up Cut Build
up
cervica
l
body bac enamel
Pre-heating
• Placing the porcelain object on a tray in front of/below
the muffle of a preheated furnace
• at 650⁰C for 5min for low fusing porcelain
• at 480⁰C for 8min for high fusing porcelains till
reaching the green or leathery state.
Significance of pre-heating stage:
• Removal of excess water allowing the porcelain object
to gain its green strength.
• Preventing sudden production of steam that could
result in voids or fractures.
• Ceramic particles held together in the “green state”
after all liquid has been dried off
FIRING DENTAL PORCELAIN:
After the condensation and building of a crown it is fired to high density and
correct form. At this stage the green porcelain is introduced into the hot zone
of the furnace and the firing starts, the glass particles soften at their contact
areas and fuse together. This is referred to as sintering.
⚫ As sintering of the particles begins, the porcelain particles bond at their points
of contact and the structure shrinks and becomes dense.
⚫ The thermochemical reactions between the porcelain powder components are
virtually completed during the original manufacturing process. Thus some
chemical reactions occur during prolonged firing times or multiple firings

The initial firing temperature As temperature is raised

• The voids are occupied by the
atmosphere of the furnace.
• As the sintering of the particles
begins, the porcelain particles bond
at their points of contact.
• The sintered glass gradually flows to fill up the
air spaces.
• The particles fuse together by sintering forming
a continuous mass, this results in a decrease in
volume referred to as firing shrinkage
With progression of firing
• The gaps between particles become
porosities. The viscosity of the glass is
low enough for it to flow due to
its own surface tension. The result is
that the porosity voids will gradually
become rounded as firing proceeds
The final firing stage
• The voids slowly rise to free surfaces
and disappear
Vacuum(negative pressure) firing
⚫ Porcelain in furnace- packed powder particles
and air channels around
⚫ air pressure inside the furnace is reduced to about
one tenth of atmospheric pressure, the air around
the particles is also reduced to this pressure. As the
temperature rises, the particles sinter together.
⚫ Pores are compressed to one tenth of their original
size, and the total volume of porosity is accordingly
reduced.
⚫ Advantages of vacuum-fired porcelain
◦ Decreased porosity
◦ increase in the strength of the porcelain
◦ greater translucence
THE STAGES IN MATURITY:
Low Bisque: surface of the porcelain is very porous. At this
stage the grains of porcelain will have started to soften.
Shrinkage will be minimal and the fired body is extremely
weak and friable. Lack translucency and glaze.

Medium bisque: surface will still be slightly porous but the

flow of the glass grains will have increased. A definite
shrinkage but lacks translucency and high glaze.

High bisque: surface of the porcelain would be completely

sealed and presents a much smoother surface with a slight
shine. Shrinkage is complete. Appears glazed.
 overfiring
●
reduce the strength due to formation of
undesirable crystal phases at higher
temperature [devitrification]
●
increases the chances of slumping
[eliminate the shape we made and
leave a globule of ceramic].
underfiring
The porcelain object will have a
●
chalky white color overlaying its
shade because light is reflected and
scattered at boundaries between
particles and at the surfaces of
porosity
 PORCELAIN SURFACE TREATMENT

• Natural/auto glaze
• Applied/add-on glaze
• Polishing
• Custom staining
GLAZING Objectives
• Life like appearance/ esthetics
Porcelains are glazed to give a smooth and glossy
• Improves Strength and life
surface. The glazing should be done only on a • Seal surface flaws
slightly roughened surface and never should be • Enhances Hygiene
applied on glazed surfaces. • Reduces wear of opposing
teeth
Over glaze
• These are ceramic powders containing more
amount of glass modifiers thus lowering fusion
temperature
• Applied on to restoration
• Firing temperature is less than that of body
porcelain
• Disadvantage-Chemical durability less compared to
self glaze(because of the high flux content)
Self glaze
• No separate glaze layer
• All the constituents on the surface are
melted to form a molten mass about
25μm thick
• Restoration subjected to controlled
heating at fusion temperature
• Only surface layer melts and flows to
form a vitreous layer resembling glaze
• Disadvantage-porcelain must be stripped
completely if it is unacceptable
Polishing
• Using special abrasives
• Sof-Lex (3M,Minneapolis,MN),Fi
nishing disks (Shofu, Kyoto,
Japan) porcelain laminate polishing
kit, or other abrasive system.
• Difficult to polish
Surface staining and characterisation
• Stain powders + special liquid- applied and
blended with brush
• By staining and characterization more
emphasis on recreating natural look
• Can include
1. Defects
2. Cracks
3. Other anomalies on enamel
ADD ON PORCELAINS
⚫The add on porcelains are made from similar materials to glaze
porcelain except for the addition of opacifiers and coloring pigments.

⚫These are sparingly used for simplest corrections like

correcting of tooth contour / contact points.
 If it cools too slowly

COOLING
• Crystals form within the glass body
which will degrade its optical properties,
turning if from a clear glass into a cloudy
• Should be well controlled one.
if it is cooled too quickly
• slowly
• Stress build up in the glass.
• Uniformly • To reduce the stresses ,it is kept near
the glass transition temperature (its
• Rapid cooling can cause cracks solidus) for a long time so that the atoms
• Induce stresses and weakens ceramic in the glass can rearrange just enough to
relieve the stress.
• When most of the stress has been
eliminated, the finished glass is finally
allowed to cool to room temperature
SWAGED METAL-CERAMIC SYSTEM
⚫ The most widely used product of this type has been
Captek (Precious Chemicals Co., Inc., Altamonte
Springs, FL), which is an acronym for “capillary
assisted technology.”
⚫ Developed by Shoher and Whiteman

⚫ The product is designed to fabricate the metal

coping of a metal- ceramic crown without the use
of a melting and casting process.

⚫ It is a laminated gold alloy foil sold as a metal strip.

CAPTEK P
•Platinum/palladium/gold
•Porous structure
•Serves as internal reinforcing skeleton.
•On heating in a furnace captek P acts as metal
sponge draws hot liquid gold completely into it
(capillary technique)
CAPTEK G
• 97.5%-GOLD
• 2.5%-SILVER
• Provides characteristic gold color
⚫ Captek P and G metals can yield thin metal copings for crowns or
frameworks for metal-ceramic bridges.
FABRICATION

M
as C
ap
te
te
r k
re p
fr m
ac et
to al
ad
ry ap
di te
e d
Advantages
• Thinner foil alloy copings
(0.25mm)
• Greater thickness of
ceramic
• Improved esthetics
• Gold color of alloy
BONDED PLATINUM FOIL
CERAMIC
• Platinum foil coping adapted on to the die
• Electro-deposition technique-to improve bonding and esthetics
• Thin layer of tin is electrodeposited on to the foil and then
oxidized in a furnace
 Dentin porcelain
Opaque porcelain

Platinum foil is adapted on the die

Enamel porcelain

Laminate is separated
Gaps filled with porcelain prior to second firing

Surface texture created

Luted platinum veneers veneers after cementation
BONDING MECHANISMS
Chemical adhesion
• Primary bonding mechanism
• Chemisorption by diffusion of oxides between alloy and ceramic – forms an interface
• Base metal alloys-chromic oxide
• Noble metal alloys-iridium oxide

Mechanical entrapment
• creates attachment by interlocking the ceramic into the microabrasion on the surface of the metal
• Air abrasion appears to enhance the wettability, provide mechanical interlocking.
Compression bonding
• Coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch- As a result of higher metal contraction on
cooling , -The fused porcelain will be sucked (attracted) more strongly into the metal surface
irregularities. -Residual compressive stresses will developed in and strengthen the porcelain.
ADVANTAGES OF METAL CERAMIC SYSTEM

1. A properly made metal-ceramic crown is more fracture resistant

and durable than most all-ceramic crowns and bridges.
2. Low fracture rate
3. Less removal of tooth structure
4. Better marginal fit
5. Long term clinical durability
DISADVANTAGES OF METAL CERAMIC SYSTEM

1. Potential for metal allergy

2. Poor esthetics(Can not be used when a
relatively high degree of translucency is
desired.)
3. Abrasive damage to opposing dentition
4. Potential for fracture
5. metal framework sometimes shows
through gingiva resulting in dark margins
ALL CERAMIC SYSTEM
“All-Ceramic” refers to – Any restorative material composed exclusively of
ceramic, such as feldspathic porcelain, glass ceramic, alumina core
systems and certain combination of these materials. (J.Esth Dent 1997, 9
(2):86)
CLASSIFICATION
• Conventional ceramics
• Castable glass ceramics
• Injection moulded glass ceramics
• Glass infiltrated core ceramics
• Machinable ceramics
Conrad et al. (2007) JPD; 85: 5 classified all ceramic materials under three
categories
Depending on the core of ceramic

Glass ceramic alumina zirconia

CONVENTIONAL
CERAMICS
 Alumina – Reinforced porcelain (Aluminous Porcelain)
• Hi-Ceram
• Vitadur – N core
 Leucite Reinforced
• Optec HSP
• Optec VP
ALUMINIOUS CORE CERAMICS
• The high-strength ceramic core was first introduced to
dentistry by McLean and Hughes in 1965.
• It is composed of aluminum oxide crystals (40-50%)
dispersed in a glassy matrix.
• Examples : Why Alumina?
– Hi-Ceram (Vident) • Good Mechanical properties.
• Interfacial region between
– Vitadur – N core (Vident) alumina and porcelain
virtually stress free.
• High modulus of elasticity
• High fracture toughness
• Significant strengthening of
the core
FABRICATION
VITA HI-CERAM

• Similar to traditional alumina core, with increased

alumina.
• Fired directly on the refractory die – rough surface
which aids in retention.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• withstand torque better than conventional • Alumina is opaque, ceramic
porcelains with fracture rates slightly less layers have to be applied to
than 0.5% (McLean) mask it

• Pure alumina is 6 times stronger than • High shrinkage, compromised fit

standard porcelains
• Low thermal conductivity
• Both alumina and porcelain show the same
co-efficient of expansion and contraction
INDICATIONS
• Single anterior & posterior
crowns
• Anterior 3-unit FPDs

CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Low fracture toughness- not
indicated as posterior FPD
• Not indicated for patients with
bruxism

Vitadur N
LEUCITE REINFORCED PORCELAIN
• feldspathic porcelain with a higher leucite crystal content (leucite
reinforced).
• Leucite increases flexural strength, compressive strength and
cofficient of thermal expansion.
• Its manipulation, condensation and firing is quite similar to the alumina
reinforced porcelain jacket crowns (using platinum foil matrix).
• Increase resistance to glassy phase to crack propagation
• Eg. Optec HSP
Advantages Uses:
• more esthetic - core is less opaque (more 1. Inlays
2. Onlays
translucent) compared to the aluminous
3. Low stress crowns.
porcelain
• Higher strength
• No need of special laboratory equipment

Disadvantages
• Fit is not as good as metal ceramic crowns
• High abrasiveness due to leucite content
• Not strong enough for posterior use.
MAGNESIA BASED CORE PORCELAIN
• Used high expansion magnesia based core material compatible with
porcelain
• Similar to leucite reinforced

ADVANTAGES
• Easy to veneer with widely
available ceramics

DISADVANTAGE
• Highly opaque
• Not used for fixed partial
dentures.
CASTABLE GLASS CERAMICS
Glass-ceramics are polycrystalline
materials developed for application by
casting procedures using the lost wax
technique, hence referred to as
“castable ceramic”.
 Castable glass ceramics

fluormicas Apatite glass ceramics Other glass ceramics

DICOR
• The first commercially available castable glass-
ceramic.
• Developed by ‘The Corning Glass Works’ (Corning
N.Y.) and marketed by Dentsply International (Yord,
PA,U.S.A).
• Cast glass ceramic is composed of:
a. Tetrasilicic flouromica crystals (crystalline) - 55%
by volume.
b. Glass matrix (non-crystalline) - 45% by volume.
CHAMELEON EFFECT
• Dicor glass-ceramic was capable of producing remarkably good esthetics
because of the “chameleon” effect- part of the color of the restoration was picked
up from the adjacent teeth as well as from the tinted cements used for luting the
restorations.
• Transparent crystals scatter the incoming light as if light is bouncing off a large
number of small mirrors that reflect the light and spread it over the entire surface
of ceramic. Thus dicor glass change color according to their surroundings.
FABRICATION Advantages of ceramming:
• Increase strength and toughness
Casting : The glass liquefies at • Increase resistance to abrasion
1370⁰C to such a degree that it • Thermal shock resistance
• Increase chemical durability
can be cast into a mold using • Decreased translucency
lost-wax and centrifugal casting
techniques.
Ceramming : The cast glass
material is subject to a single-
step heat treatment called
“Ceramming” to produce
controlled crystallization by
internal nucleation and crystal
growth of microscopic plate like
mica crystals within the glass
matrix.
Advantages
• Ease of fabrication
• Good esthetics(greater translucency and Indications:
chameleon effect) • Used for anterior single crown
• Improved strength and fracture toughness (low stress area)
• Used in situations where high
• Good marginal fit - low processing shrinkage translucency is required.
• Low abrasion of opposing teeth Contraindications:
• Not used as posterior crowns.
• Not used in high stress
Disadvantages bearing areas.
• Inadequate strength for posterior use
• High fracture rate of veneers
• Has to be stained externally to improve esthetics
Products introduced to overcome the disadvantages:
• Dicor plus: consists of a cast cerammed core and a shaded
feldspathic porcelain veneer
• Willis glass: consist dicor cast cerammed core and Vitadur N porcelain
veneer
CASTABLE APATITE GLASS CERAMIC
• 1985 -Sumiya Hobo & Iwata developed a castable apatite glass-ceramic
which was commercially available as Cera Pearl (Kyocera Bioceram,
Japan).
• CERA PEARL (Kyocera San Diego, CA): contains a glass powder
distributed in a vitreous or non-crystalline state

Chemistry: casting
Apatite Glass-Ceramic Molten glass CaPO4
ceramming moisture
CaPO4 Oxyapatite Hydroxyapatite
Desirable characteristics of Apatite Ceramics
Cerapearl is similar to natural enamel in composition, density, refractive index, thermal
conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion and hardness.
Bonding to tooth structure : Cerapearl surface is activated by air abrading (to provide
mechanical interlocking effect) or treatment with activator solution (etching of with HCI
preferentially removes the glassy phase from the surface, thus exposing the apatite phase).
The glass ionomer can then bond to this apatite phase both chemically (ion-exchange) and
mechanically (interlocking effect).

cerapearl enamel
FABRICATION
Advantages of castable apatite glass
ceramics
• High strength because of controlled particle
size reinforcement.
• Excellent esthetics resulting from light
transmission similar to that of natural teeth
and convenient procedures for imparting the
required colour.
• Favorable soft tissue response.
• Dimensional stability regardless of any
porcelain corrective procedure and subsequent
firings.
PRESSABLE CERAMICS
Can be heated to a specific temperature and forced under pressure to fill
a cavity in a refractory mold.

Pressable
Pressable glass
glass ceramics
ceramics

Shrink
Shrink free
free ceramic
ceramic Leucite
Leucite reinforced
reinforced Lithia
Lithia reinforced
reinforced
SHRINK FREE CERAMICS
• The development of non-shrinking ceramics such as the Cerestore
system was directed towards providing an alternate treatment.
• 1987 - Hullah & Williams described the formulation of shrink free
ceramics
• Injection moulded/heat pressed
• Shrink-free ceramics were marketed as two generation of materials
under the commercial names :
i. Cerestore (Johnson & Johnson. NJ, USA)
ii. Al-Ceram (Innotek Dental Corp, USA)
COMPOSITION
The shrink free ceramic material essentially consists of alumina and MgO mixed with
Barium glass frits.
CHEMISTRY
On firing a combination of chemical and crystalline transformation produces Magnesium
aluminate spinel, which occupies a greater volume than the original mixed oxides and
thus compensates for the conventional firing shrinkage of ceramic.

During firing

Chemical transformation crystalline transformation

160⁰C-800⁰C alumina
SiO SiO2 aluminosilicate + incorporated magnesia Mg aluminate spinel
Advantages :
• Innovative feature is the dimensional
stability of the core material in the molded
(unfired) and fired states. Hence, failures
related to firing shrinkage are eliminated.
• Better accuracy of fit
• Low thermal conductivity; thus reduced
thermal sensitivity.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion and
high modulus of elasticity results in
protection of seal.
Disadvantages :
• Inadequate flexural strength
compared to the metal-ceramic
restorations.
• Poor abrasion resistance, hence not
recommended in patients with heavy
bruxism or inadequate clearance.
The material underwent further
improvement and developed into a product
with a 70 to 90% higher flexural strength.
This was marketed under the commercial
name Al Ceram.
LEUCITE REINFORCED
PORCELAINS

• Leucite reinforced porcelains can be broadly divided into:

i. IPS Empress (Ivoclar Williams)
ii. Optec Pressable Ceramic / OPC (Jeneric/Pentron)
IPS EMPRESS (Ivoclar Williams)
• pre-cerammed, pre-coloured leucite reinforced glass-ceramic formed
from the leucite system by controlled surface crystallization
• It is a type of feldspathic porcelain containing a higher concentration of
leucite crystals, which increases the resistance to crack propagation.
• 30%-35% leucite content
FABRICATION A special furnace
Empress EP500 designed
for this system is capable
of high temperatures.

Crucible former placed in furnace that has an alumina plunger

Ceramic ingot &an Alumina plunger is inserted in to the sprue

Compatible veneering porcelains are added to core to build up

Divesting final restoration
Advantages :
• Lack of metal
• Excellent fit (low-shrinkage
ceramic)
• Improved esthetics (translucent,
fluorescence)
• Etchable
• Less susceptible to fatigue and
stress failure
• Unlike previous glass-ceramic
systems IPS Empress does not
require ceramming to initiate the
crystalline phase of leucite crystals
(They are formed throughout the
various temperature cycles).
Disadvantages :
• Potential to fracture in posterior areas.
• Need for special laboratory equipment such
as pressing oven and die material
(expensive).
• Inability to cover the colour of a darkened
tooth preparation or post and core, since the
crowns are relatively translucent.
• Compressive strength and flexural strength
lesser than metal-ceramic or glass-infiltrated
(In-Ceram) crowns.
Uses :
• Laminate veneers and full crowns for
anterior teeth
• Inlays, onlays and partial coverage crowns
LITHIA REINFORCED PORCELAINS
• IPS Empress 2 (Ivoclar Vivadent) and
Optec OPC 3G contain more than 70%
by volume of lithia disilicate as the
principal crystal phase.
• IPS Empress 2 is a recently introduced
hot-pressed ceramic
Advantages:
• Improved fracture resistance.
• Very high chemical resistance of both
framework and layering ceramics.
• High translucency.
• Outstanding optical properties due to
apatite (also a component of natural
teeth).
• Wear behavior similar to that of
natural enamel.
• Ingots available in the most popular
Chromoscope shades.
INDICATIONS
• Thin veneers (0.3 mm)
• Inlays , onlays, occlusal veneers
• Crowns in the anterior and
posterior region
• Bridges in the anterior and
premolar region
• Implant superstructures
• Hybrid abutments and abutment
crowns
GLASS INFILTRATED CERAMICS/SLIP CAST CERAMICS

• Specialized ceramics reinforced by an unique glass infiltration process

• Involves condensation of an aqeuous slip on a refractory die
In-ceram

In-ceram alumina In-ceram spinell In-ceram zirconia

core core core
IN-CERAM ALUMINA
• Developed by a French scientist and dentist Dr. Michael Sadoun
(1980)
Composition: In-Ceram ceramic consists of two 3- D interpenetrating
phases :
1. Alumina crystalline- 99.56 wt%
2. An Infiltration glass lanthanum aluminosilicate with small amounts of
sodium and calcium.
Slurry of alumina

Capillary action
Advantages :
• Minimal firing shrinkage, hence
an accurate fit.
• High flexure strengths (almost 3 •
times of ordinary porcelain)
makes the material suitable even
for multiple-unit bridges.
• Aluminous core being opaque
can be used to cover darkened
teeth or post/ core.
Uses: Disadvantages :
• Requires specialized equipment to
• Single anterior &
fabricate the restoration, hence
posterior crowns
laboratory expense is more.
Anterior 3-unit
FPD's • Poor optical properties or esthetics
(opaque alumina core reduces the
translucency of the final restoration).
• Slip casting is a complex technique
and requires considerable practice.
IN-CERAM SPINELL
• The porous core is fabricated from a magnesium alumina powder after
sintering. This type of material has a specific crystalline structure
referred to as spinell.
• The primary difference is a change in composition to produce a more
translucent core.
Advantage:
• The translucency closely
matches that of dentin and is
twice more than Inceram
alumina.
Disadvantage:
• Decreased flexural strength
• Incapable to be etched
Indications:
• Anterior crowns, particularly in
clinical situations where
maximum translucency is
needed.
Contraindications:
• Posterior restorations.
• Anterior and posterior FPDs.
• In discolored preparations and
cast posts as the level of
translucency is excessive and
leads to an overly glassy low
value appearance.
IN-CERAM ZIRCONIA
• A second-generation material based on In
ceram fabrication technique.
• Core is 30% glass and 70% zirconia
• high degree of opacity but has good modulous
of elasticity and fracture toghness • Crystalline oxide of
zirconium
• Zirconia is a nonmetal
• extremely low thermal
conductivity
• It is chemically inert
• highly corrosion
resistant
Advantages:
• Highest flexural strength
• Highest fracture toughness
• Metal free prosthesis

Disadvantages:
• High opacity
• Less aesthetics

Indications:
• Posterior crown
• Posterior bridges
MACHINABLE CERAMICS
From 1998 , machined ceramics came into being. There are two major
systems for the fabrication of this technique.
1. Digital systems
• CAD CAM technology
2. Analogous systems
• Copy milling / grinding technique
• Erosive techniques
STRENGTHENING OF CERAMICS
METHODS OF STRENGTHENING CERAMICS
Ion exchange mechanism: Characterize the finished crown and adjust the
occlusion.

 This technique is called as chemical

tempering and is the most sophisticated Crown is placed into a mould of pure potassium
nitrate powder which is in a small porcelain crucible/
and effective way of introducing residual stainless steel container.
compressive stresses.

 This process is best used on the Place the container in a cool furnace and raise the
temperature slowly to 500C
internal surface of the crown,
veneer/inlay as the surface is
protected from grinding and
exposure to acids. Hold the temperature at 500 C for 6 hours.

Remove the crown from the solution and allow it

to drain in the furnace. Remove the crown from
the furnace and cool to room temperature.
Thermal tempering

 This is the most common method of strengthening glass.

 In dentistry silicone oil and other special liquids are used for quenching ceramics instead of
water/air
INTERRUPTION OF CRACK PROPAGATION-
DISPERSION OF CRYSTALLINE PHASE
⚫ Crystalline reinforcement:

◦ A method of strengthening glasses and ceramics is to reinforce them with a

dispresed phase of different material that is capable of hindering crack
propagation through the material.

◦ The crystalline phase with greater thermal expansion coefficient than the matrix
produces tangential compressive stress (and radial tension) near the crystal
matrix interface. Such tangential stresses divert the crack around the particle.
Examples of dispersed
crystalline phases
• Leucite
• Lithium disilicate
• Alumina
• Magnesia alumina
spinel
• Zirconia
• Tetra silicic flouromica
Transformation toughening
◦ A newer technique of strengthening glasses involves the incorporation of a
crystalline material that is capable of undergoing a change in crystal structure when
placed under stress.
◦ The crystalline material usually used is termed partially stabilized Zirconia (PZC).
◦ Pure zirconia would be useless for dental restorative applications as Tetragonal
phase is not stable at room temperature and it can transform to the monoclinic
phase leading to a corresponding volume increase.
High-temperature tetragonal phase can be stabilized at
room temperature by :
• Doping with Mg, Ca, Sc, Y, or Nd
• Reduce the crystal size to less than 10 nm
• Yttria stabilized zirconia ceramics is known as
ceramic steel(due to transformation toughening)
• stabilizing oxides
 magnesium oxide
 yttrium oxide
 calcium oxide
 cerium oxide
 Absorbs energy
A change in Crack shielding
required for The energy required for the
crystal structure and toughening
propagation of
under stress of ceramic transformation of PSZ is
crack
taken from the energy that
allows the crack to propagate.

When sufficient stress

develops in the tetragonal
structure and a crack in the
area begins to propagate, the
metastable tetragonal crystals
(grains) precipitates next to
the crack tip can transform to
the stable monoclinic form.
Crack propagation
METHODS OF DESIGNING COMPONENTS TO
MINIMIZE STRESS
MINIMIZING TENSILE
STRESSES:
The design should avoid
exposure of ceramics to high
tensile stresses. It should also
avoid stress concentration at
sharp angles or marked
changes in thickness.
 REDUCING STRESS RAISERS
How to avoid stress
raisers
Discontinuities in brittle materials
• Sufficient bulk
• Minimum sharp
angular changes
Abrupt change in shape/thickness in ceramic • Proper proportioning
contour
• Proper compaction
• Proper drying
• Firing under vacuum
Cause stress concentration in these areas • Non rapid cooling
• Glazing

Restoration more prone to fracture

MACHINABLE CERAMICS-
ADVANCES
 Dental ceramics and processing technologies have evolved significantly in
the past few decades, with most of the evolution being related to new
microstructures and CAD-CAM methods.
We shall discuss the main advantages and disadvantages of the new
ceramic systems and processing methods.

Dental ceramics: a review of new materials and processing methods- SILVA L et al. Braz. Oral Res.
2017;31(suppl):e58
MULTILAYERED DENTAL PROSTHESES
• metal/ceramic bilayers are still considered the gold
standard for FPDs
• development of a series of ceramic materials with high
crystalline content are able to withstand the
mechanical stresses :
i. alumina-based zirconia-reinforced glass infiltrated
ceramic
ii. polycrystalline alumina
iii. Y-TZP
• chipping fractures of the veneering ceramic were
frequently reported
• Multilayered restorations made from CAD-CAM blocks
showed significantly higher fracture strength values
 MONOLITHIC ZIRCONIA
RESTORATIONS
• Among polycrystalline ceramics, yttria stabilized
tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (Y-TZP) for monolithic
restorations has been developed more recently to
overcome problems related to chipping of porcelain layers
applied over zirconia
• Y-TZP shows superior performance among dental
ceramics due the high strength
• superior fracture toughness
• The better translucency of the new zirconia materials
ADVANTAGES
• processing methods are simplified in comparison to traditional
multilayered restorations
• less time consuming.
• much less invasive preparations since this ceramic material
has relatively high mechanical properties
• thinner structures can be constructed
• transformation toughening, hinder crack propagation
• monolithic zirconia showed relatively low fracture rates
• causes minimum wear of the antagonists, this wear rate is
within the physiological range
• marginal adaptation of the monolithic restorations of Y-TZP
improved over the years due to the evolution of CAD-CAM
systems
 NEW GLASS-CERAMICS
• new glass-ceramics were designed to contain lithium
silicate as the main crystalline phase in a vitreous
matrix reinforced with zirconium dioxide crystals (10%).
• commercial examples of lithium silicate glass-ceramics
are:
a. Suprinity (Vita Zahnfabrik, Bad Sachingen, Germany),
a material marketed in a partially crystallized state and
that requires an additional thermal cycle in a furnace
b. CELTRA Duo (Dentisply-Sirona, Bensheim, Germany),
a material that is already in its final crystallization
ADVANTAGES
• lithium silicate crystals are up to 6 times smaller than lithium
disilicate crystals present in lithium disilicate glass ceramic-
due to the presence of zirconia particles in the material
• these new zirconium-reinforced lithium silicate materials
maintain good optical properties
• attain good surface finishing as they have a high amount of
glass matrix
• have good mechanical properties
• faster to be milled in CAD-CAM machines than lithium
disilicate glass-ceramics and are already offered in their fully
crystallized or need a very short crystallization cycle
• superior polishability due to the smaller crystal sizes in the
microstructure.
 POLYMER INFILTRATED CERAMIC
NETWORKS (PICNS)
• Recently, a new material has been developed by Vita
which is marketed as a polymer infiltrated in a porous
ceramic
• The material is considered a resin-ceramic composite
material, composed of two interconnected networks: a
dominant ceramic and a polymer.
• final shrinkage of the polymer after infiltration is much
greater than the shrinkage experienced upon cooling
of the infiltration glass.
• PICN is based on initial sintering of a porcelain powder
followed by infiltration with a monomer mixture.
ADVANTAGES:
• easier to mill and can be easily
repaired by composite resins.
• lower elastic modulus and higher
damage tolerance.
• The fracture toughness value was
similar to that of the feldspathic
ceramic.
• the stain resistance of PICN was
superior to Lava Ultimate and
inferior than that reported for IPS
e.max
DISADVANTAGE
• the shrinkage of the curing resin results
in interfacial stresses occurring between
the ceramic framework and the polymer
results in debonding and a higher
opacity because of the gaps developed
at the interface.
INDICATIONS
• Based on the reduced elastic modulus of
Enamic, this material is especially indicated
for prosthetic treatments on stiff implants.
• Due to the inferior optical properties, PICNs
are more suitable in the molar than in the
anterior region
CAD-CAM
• Development of CAD-CAM systems for the dental profession began in the
1970‘s with Duret in France, Altschuler in the US and Mormann and
Brandestini in Switzerland.
ESSENTIALS OF CAD CAM
THE CAD CAM PROCESS
A CAD CAM system utilizes a process chain consisting of scanning, designing and milling
phases.
Machinable ceramic blanks: • Pre-sintered blanks
• Feldspathic porcelain blanks -Alumina (Vita InCeram Al)
-Yttria stabilized zirconia (Vita In Ceram
-Vitablocs Mark II (Vita) VZ)
• Glass ceramic blanks • Sintered blanks
-Yttria stabilized zirconia (Everest ZH
-Dicor MGC,(tetrasilicis flouromica)
blanks)
-Pro Cad,Everest G(Kavo)(leucite),
-IPS emax CAD(Kavo)(lithia disilicate)
• Glass infiltrated blanks
-Alumina,(Vita InCeram Alumina)
-spinell,(Vita InCeram Spinell),
-zirconia(Vita In Ceram Zircona)
HARD MACHINING
• Machined in fully sintered state
• Restoration is machined directly to final
size

SOFT MACHINING FOLLOWING SINTERING

• In partially sintered state - later fully sintered
• Requires milling of an enlarged restoration to compensate for
sintering shrinkage
• Used for alumina,spinell,zirconia (difficult to machine in fully
sintered state) Copings are furthur glass infiltrated
ADVANTAGES
• Dentists control the manufacturing of restoration without
laboratory assistance
• Reduced porosity & greater strength
• Single appointment
• Decreases fabrication time by 90%
• Minimal abrasion of opposing tooth structure due to
homogenieity of material
DISADVANTAGES
• Expensive and limited availability
• Technique sensitive
• Inability to build layers of porcelain
• Decreased marginal accuracy
MOST COMMON CAD CAM SYSTEMS
DIRECT CAD CAM SYSTEM
 CEREC SYSTEM
• CEREC- Chair Side Economic Reconstruction
of Esthetic Ceramic
• First demonstrated in 1986

Cerec System consists of :

• A 3-D video camera (scan head)
• An electronic image processor (video
processor) with memory unit (contour memory)
• A digital processor (computer)
• A miniature milling machine
Materials used with CEREC
• Dicor MGC: mica based machinable glass ceramic
containing 70% vol of crystalline phase
• Vita Mark II (Vident):contain sanidine as a major
crystalline phase within a glassy matrix.
• ProCad (Ivoclar):Like Ivoclar's popular Empress™
material, ProCAD is reinforced with tiny leucite
particles, and has been referred to as: "Empress
on a stick".
• Vita IN-Ceram Blanks (Vita Zhanfabrik):
• IN-Ceram Spinell.
• IN-Ceram Alumina.
• IN-Ceram Zirconia
Clinical Procedure:
Clinical shortcoming of Cerec 1 system :
• Although the CEREC system generated all internal and external aspects of the
restoration, the occlusal anatomy had to be developed by the clinician using a
flame-shaped, fine-particle diamond instrument and conventional porcelain
polishing procedures were required to finalize the restoration.
• Inaccuracy of fit or large interfacial gaps.
• Clinical fracture related to insufficient depth of preparation.
• Relatively poor esthetics due to the uniform colour and lack of characterization
in the materials used.
CEREC 2
The CEREC 2 unit (Siemen/Sirona) was introduced in 1992
The changes include :
• Enlargement of the grinding unit
• Upgrading allows machining of the occlusal surfaces for
the occlusion and the complex machining of the floor
parts.
• The improved Cerec 2 camera to improve accuracy and
reduce errors
• Magnification factor increased from x8 to x12 for
improved accuracy during measurements.
• Improved accuracy of fit
 CEREC 3
• Software still easy and user friendly which
uses windows as operating system.
• Two compatible cameras available- SIROCAM
2 / SIDEXIS.
• Precise restorations.
• Extra-oral and intra-oral measuring.
• Rapid production.
• The imaging unit and the milling unit can be
linked via cable
• Supported with online help and design.
PRO-CAD
It is a new CEREC ceramic material based on leucite reinforced
glass ceramic with increased strength.

Indications:
• Veneers
• Partial crowns
• Anterior and
posterior crowns
Advantages of CEREC System
• One or two appointments.
• Optical impression, max time required is
5 sec.
• Wear hardness similar to enamel.
• Less fracture due to single homogenous
block.
• Excellent polish.
• Improved esthetics.
• Good occlusal morphology in relation to
antagonist.
INDIRECT CAD - CAM
• System that consists of several modules with at least, two distinctive
CAD & CAM stations
• The optical impression is taken in the dental office, where CAD is done;
data are transmitted to CAM station for restoration fabrication.

1. Duret system.
2. Procera system (Noble Bio-Care).
3. Cicero system(Elephant Industries).
4. President system (DCS Dental).
5. CEREC SCAN & CEREC InLAB (Sirona Dental company
PROCERA ALL CERAM SYSTEM
• introduced in 1994.
• first system which provides outsourced
fabrication using a network connection.
• Developed by Dr. Matts Anderson for
Nobel Biocare embraces the concept of
CAD CAM.
• The Procera AllCeram Crown involves a
densely sintered high-purity alumina core
combined with a low fusing veneering
porcelain fabricated by the pressed
powder technology.
Procera scanner
Procera optical probe
Consists of computer controlled design station in dental laboratory that is joined
through a modern communication link to Procera, where the coping is
manufactured
 CICERO SYSTEM
• computer integrated crown reconstruction
• was introduced by Denison et al in 1999,
• it includes optical scanning, metal and
Ceramic sintering and computer assisted
milling to obtain restoration.
• the aim of CICERO is mass production of
ceramic restorations at one integrated
site.
• It includes rapid custom fabrication of high
strength alumina coping and also partially
finished crowns to be delivered to dental
laboratories
The CICERO method of crown fabrication consists of
i. optically digitizing a gypsum die
ii. designing the crown layer buildup
iii. subsequently pressing, sintering
iv. milling consecutive layers of a shaded high-strength alumina-based
core material
v. Final finishing is performed in the dental laboratory. 
 LAVA SYSTEM
• introduced in 2002
• mainly used for fabricating zirconia
framework for the all ceramic
restorations.
• uses a laser optical system to transfer
and digitize information received from
the preparation.
• The Lava CAD software suggests a
pontic automatically according to the
margin.
 CEREC SCAN
• CEREC SCAN (inclusive of both scanning and milling device)with lap
top(imaging device).
• Tooth preparation.
• Conventional impressions.
• Die preparation.
• Works upon CEREC 3 software.
• Intra oral scanning device is not present.
COPY MILLING
• Mechanical shaping of an industrially prefabricated material
• Wax pattern of restoration is scanned and replica is milled out of the ceramic blank
• Copy milling takes about 20-30 minutes
CELEY SYSTEMS
• Uses copy milling technique- first available in 1992
• Resin pattern fabricated directly on master die and pattern is used for milling
porcelain restorations
• Sorenson 1994 : marginal fit of CELAY is better than CEREC
 Copy milling pattern out of ceramic blank
Pattern mounted for probing

As the tracing tool passes over the pattern, a milling machine duplicates these
movements as it grinds a copy of the pattern from a block of ceramic material
 CERCON SYSTEM
• It is commonly called as a
CAM system as it does not
have a CAD component.
• This system scans the wax
pattern and mills a zirconia
bridge coping from
presintered zirconia blanks,
which is sintered at 1,350⁰C
for 6-8 hrs.
• Veneering is done later on to
provide esthetic contour.
CERAMILL SYSTEM
• Based on pantograph type of copy milling
• Probe tip traces the resin build up
• Milling handpiece simultaneously mills a
duplicate coping out of zirconia block

Zirconia reinforced lithium disilicate

Advantages
Disadvantages
• Precisely fitting ceramic
• marginal quality of crowns made
restorations can be developed
from the copy-milling technique
without a lab technician
is likely to be inferior to that of
• The grains are finer than
copings made from the hot
conventional In-Ceram,
pressing method.
therefore the strength is more
than conventional.
Although the CAD-CAM systems described above are already well
established in the dental market, they present a major drawback related to
the great waste of material upon machining. Therefore, new technologies
have been developed to overcome this problem.
These techniques are:
1. Selective Laser Sintering or Melting (BEGO Medifacturing® System,
BEGO Medical GmbH, Bremen, Germany)
2. Direct 3D Printing/rapid prototyping
3. Stereolithography.
CONCLUSION
It is apparent that ceramics as a material group would continue to play a
vital role in dentistry owing to their natural aesthetics and sovereign
biocompatibility with no known adverse reactions. However, there will
always remain a compromise between aesthetics and biomechanical
strength.
 REFERENCES
1. Phillips science of dental materials –11th edition
2. Craig’s Restorative dental materials –13th edition.
3. Mannapallil – 3rd edition
4. W. Patrick Naylor,Introduction to Metal – Ceramic Technology –
Second edition
5. William J.O Brien, Dental materials and their selection- 3rd edition.
6. Kelly JR. Nishimura I. Campbell SD. Ceramics in dentistry: Historical roots
and current perspectives. J prosthet dent 1996:75 18-32.
7. Kelly J. Dental ceramics: current thinking and trends. Dent Clin N Am
2004(48):513-530.
8. Dental ceramics: a review of new materials and processing methods- SILVA
L et al. Braz. Oral Res. 2017;31(suppl):e58