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5A. Igneous Rocks I
5A. Igneous Rocks I
crystals) and gas. Its composition is largely controlled by its source. The image
shown above is a pahoehoe basalt flow.
Magmas (lavas) are subdivided largely by silica content. As silica (SiO2)
content increases iron and magnesium content (FeO and MgO) decreases.
Note that lighter elements, such as sodium (Na2O) and potassium (K2O)
content follow the silica trends. Elemental composition of magmas and rocks
are described in terms of oxide composition because of their common bonds
Viscosity
The viscosity (resistance
to flow) of a magma is
controlled by its silica
content and its
temperature.
Pahoehoe Flow
(Smooth word, smooth
flow).
Pahoehoe (ropey textured) basalt flows have a lower viscosity than aa (blocky
textured) flows, which have degassed and cooled.
Granitic magma forms from a partial melt
of continental crust, which contains
dissolved water. Dissolved water content
in a magma reduces its melting
temperature with increasing pressure
(water molecules will inhibit the silicate
tetrahedra from forming bonds).
Note that the melting temperature curve
for a wet granitic melt increases with
decreasing pressure (opposite of basaltic
dry melt). Melting occurs at a depth of 35-
45 km within continental crust.
As granitic magma rises it solidifies (point
X) as its melting temperature increases
while the geothermal gradient (actual
temperature) decreases. Granitic
composition magmas rarely reach the
surface as volcanic rhyolite flows because
of the high water content and
corresponding increase in melting
temperature as it rises towards the
surface.
Granitic composition magma is
produced at continental collision
margins. As the continental crust
thickens it begins to partially melt at
depth. Igneous intrusions (plutons)
form below the mountain belts.
Volcanism is rare in continental
collision boundaries.
As collisional tectonic mountain
ranges are uplifted the overlying
marine sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks are eroded
exposing the underlying granitic
plutons.
The granitic rocks of New
Hampshire and Vermont represent
old granitic plutons that were
intruded when the Appalachian
Mountains formed 300 million years
ago as North American continent
colided with proto-European
continent.
Granitic rock excavated from a quarry in Barre, Vermont formed as plutons
beneath the Appalachian Mountains when North Africa collided with
eastern North America 300 million years ago.
Granitic composition magma reaches to the surface in Yellowstone Park
because the continental crust is being heated closer to the surface by upwelling
magma generated from a asthenospheric hotspot.
The Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming) formed following a very large eruption ~600,000
years ago. The rhyolite flows are very viscous and internal gas pressures can be very
high. Why is explosivity of a volcanic eruption related to viscosity and gas content of the
magma?
Intermediate composition magma can
crystallize below the surface beneath
subduction zones and create large
plutonic bodies composed of coarse-
grained igneous rock.
Compositons can range from granite
to diorite.
El Capitan shown on the left is part of
the Sierra Nevada intrusive complex
that formed over 90 million years ago
when a subduction zone existed along
the margin of California.
The plutonic bodies comprising the
Sierra Nevada are similar in origin to
the plutonic bodies forming under the
modern Cascades.
Grano-diorite
rock from the
Sierra Nevada
Andesitic magma is produced from a partial melt of oceanic crust along subduction
zones. Introduction of water forced out of the subducting plate lowers the melting
temperature of the upper mantle, which rises and partially melts the overlying crust. In
an ocean-continental convergent margin it may mix with partially melted continental
crust, increasing the magma’s silica content (becomes more felsic). Mount St. Helens
dacites are more silica rich than Mt. Rainier andesite, likely due to continental source.
Mt. St. Helens is composed of intermediate composition dacitic flows. Dacite is
slightly more felsic (has greater silica content) than andesite, but more mafic
(higher Fe and Mg content) than rhyolite.
Because minerals crystallize at specific temperatures certain minerals will be compatible
and form together in igneous rocks (e.g., olivine, pyroxene, and Ca-rich plagioclase).
The crystallization temperature is highest for olivine and becomes progressively lower
until quartz forms last from the residual SiO2 melt.
Continuous reaction series occur when Ca atoms continually exchange with Na atoms
when the melt and solid phases are not separated You can have any proportionality of
Na/Ca plagioclase (feldspar) minerals. The composition of the plagioclase mineral in a
crystallizing magma changed continuously (even though the crystal structure remains
unchanged. The zoned feldspar crystal (shown on left) is composed of Ca-rich feldspar
in the center and Na-rich towards the outer rim. Zones in between are intermediate
compostion (50/50 Ca:Na).
early formed
olivine crystals
(shown as
brightly colored
crystals under
polarized light)
later formed
pyroxene crystals
(shown as gray
color under
polarized light).
Discontinuous reaction series occur when early formed crystals form entirely new
minerals through reaction with the melt. For example, olivine will crystallize first
(highest melting/freezing temperature) leaving a magma that is slightly more silica-rich
and possessing a greater proportion of other elements (Ca) that were not present in the
olivine structure. Olivine will react with the magma to produce and entirely new mineral
pyroxene. The discontinuous reaction series will occur as long as the melt and crystal
phases can react.
Differentiation of magma can occur from fractional crystallization of magma, where the
solid phase is separated from the melt phase. The solid phase will have a composition
that is relatively more mafic than the residual more silica-rich melt phase. The reverse
reaction process occurs when rock is subjected to partial melting, where the melt phase
is separated from the residual solid phase.
Magmatic differentiation of magma by fractional crystallization. Note how the
composition of the magma changes as more mineral crystals form. Think of
the yellow atoms forming to Fe-Mg silicate minerals that crystallize first during
the differentiation process. Think of the red atoms comprising the silica-rich
As earlier formed minerals are removed from the magma by fractional crystallization, a
greater proportion of the denser elements (Fe and Mg) are removed leaving a residual
melt that is more enriched in silica and lighter elements. Minerals and rocks that form
later will have a greater proportion of the lighter elements (SiO, Al, Na and K).
A version of this diagram is
always on my midterm!
You should understand how
to use it to determine
igneous rock classification
and mineral content