Introduction To Environmental Science Faculty: ARK: Lecture 1 &2 Issues and Values

Summer 2019
Env 107
Introduction to Environmental Science

Faculty: ARK
Lecture 1 &2
Issues and Values
What is Science ?
• The word science is simply an anglicize
version of the Latin scientia, which means
knowledge.
• Science, derived from "knowing" in Latin, is
a process for producing knowledge.
• It depends on making precise observations of
natural phenomena and on formulating
reasonable theories to make sense out of
those observations
What is Environment ?
• Environment is everything that affects a living
organism (any unique form of life.
• Environment (from the French envirormer: to
encircle or surround) can be defined as
• (1) the circumstances and conditions that
surround an organism or a group of organisms or
(2) the social and cultural conditions that affect
an individual or a community.
• Since humans inhabit the natural world as well
as the "built" or technological, social, and
cultural world, all constitute important parts of
our environment.
Environment: the total of our surroundings
a. All of the biotic (organisms themselves, their
food, interactions, and living things) and abiotic
factors (sunlight, soil, air, water, climate, and
pollution) that act on an organism, population, or
ecological community and ultimately determine
its form and survival;
b. the aggregate of social and cultural conditions

that influence the life of an individual or
community.
Environment
• Environment may refer to biophysical, the
physical and biological factors along with their
chemical interactions that affect an organism
• Natural environment: all living and non-living
things that occur naturally on Earth
• Built environment: constructed surroundings
that provide the setting for human activity,
ranging from the large-scale civic surroundings
to the personal places Social environment: the
culture that an individual lives in, and the
people and institutions with whom they
interact
What is Environmental Science ?
What is Environmental Science ?
• Environmental science is the systematic study
of our environment and our place in it.
• Environmental science is highly
interdisciplinary. It integrates information
from biology, chemistry, geography,
agriculture, and many other fields.
• To apply this information to improve the ways
we treat our world, environmental scientists
also incorporate knowledge of social
organization, politics, and the humanities.
Why Study Environmental Science?
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary
science that uses concepts and information
from natural sciences such as ecology, biology,
chemistry, and geology and social sciences
such as economics, politics, and ethics to help
us understand
(1)how the earth works,
(2)how we are affecting the earth's life-support
systems (environment), and
(3)how to deal with the environmental problems
we face.
Many different groups of people are concerned
about environmental issue.
Our Home
Why Is This Study Important?
• What is ecology? Ecofriendly?
• Ecology (from the greek words oikos, "house" or "place to

live," and logos, "study of") is the study of how organisms
interact with one another and with their nonliving environment.
In effect, it is a study of connections in nature.
• We depend on our environment for our different needs such as

food, housing, energy, recreation.
• Humans and nature are closely connected. Our environment

improves the quality of our lives.
• However, modern science and technology give us the power to

change the environment.
• These changes often result in negative impacts which in turn

hampers humans and other life on earth.
Human and the world around us
Human change environment, often in ways not fully

understand;
We depend completely on the environment for survival
(Increased wealth, health, mobility, food)
As a consequence, the natural systems have been degraded
(i.e., pollution, erosion and species extinction)
Thus, environmental changes threaten long-term health and
survival and sustainability.
Environmental science is the study of:
How the natural world works
How the environment affects humans and vice versa
Major Environmental Concerns
Shrimp, Mangroves, and Pickup Trucks: Local and Global Connections Reveal
Major Environmental Concerns
•Maitri Visctak owns a small plot of land along the coast of southern Thailand and wanted to improve life
for his family, and he succeeded. A growing demand for shrimp as a luxury food and overfishing of wild
shrimp had fueled growth of the world market for farmed shrimp from a $1.5 billion industry 30 years
ago to an S8 billion business today. In the early 1990s, Mr. Visetak began farming shrimp in two small
ponds. Within two years, he had accumulated enough capital to purchase two pickup trucks-in Thailand
a clear indication of financial Success. By then, though, his ponds were contaminated with shrimp
waste, antibiotics, fertiizers, and pesticides. Shrimp could no longer live in the ponds. And there was an
even more widespread effect: Pollutants escaping from the ponds threatened survival of the area's
mangrove trees. Like thousands of other shrimp farmers in Southeast Asia, India, Africa, and Latin
America, Mr. Visetak considered abandoning these ponds and moving on to others.
•Maitri Visetak is trying to feed his family in the best way he knows how, but along with thousands of
other shrimp farmers in the World, he is unwittingly contributing to destruction of coastal mangroves,
one of the world's valuable ecosystems. Half of the world's mangrove forests have been destroyed and
with them a major source of food for local human populations and breeding grounds for much of the
tropical world's sea life. The United Nations Environment Program has estimated that one-fourth of the
destruction of mangroves can be traced to shrimp farming. Environmentalists have become alarmed,
and in many areas local people have staged protests against shrimp farming. With the world's
population expected to increase from 6.2 billion to 9 billion by the middle of the twenty-first century,
concern over the world's mangrove forests is growing.
Major themes of environmental science
Maitri Visetak's story illustrates the major themes of environmental science.
The major themes of environmental science are:
• First, people and nature are intimately connected, and changes in one lead
to changes in the other.
• Second, human population increase is a major contributor to environmental
problems.
• Third, industrial development and urbanization have serious environmental
consequences.
• Fourth, unsustainable use of resources must be replaced with sustainable
practices.
• Fifth, local changes can have global effects.
• Sixth, environmental issues involve values and attitudes as well as scientific
understanding.
Maitri Visetak's story also illustrates important questions that we all must
face. Which individual actions contribute to environmental degradation?
What actions can people, both as individuals and as groups, take to limit
environmental damage?
Mangroves
Natural Mangroves Degraded Mangroves
Purpose of studying Environmental Science
Basic Purpose is Sustainability:
• In the past environmental resources used
faster than they could replenish.
• We have extracted the minerals, oils and
groundwater without the concern of their
limits
• So, many of these resources are no longer in
abundance
• We must have to learn how to sustain our
environmental resources so that they continue
provides the benefit to us
Sustainability must be used.
Goal: Sustainability.
What is Sustainability ?
• Sustainable: The involvement and use of natural
products and energy in a way that does not harm
the environment.
• Definition varies depending on the purposes like
social, economic or environmental sustainability.
• Sustainability: A search for ecological stability and
human progress that can last over the long term.
It is the ability of a system to sustain longer, instead
of getting simply some early profits.
•
Sustainable Development
Development means bettering peoples lives.

Sustainable Development then means progress in
human wellbeing that can extend or prolong over
generations rather than just a few years.
Gro Herlam Bruntland defined sustainable development as

"which meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
Ref: Our Common Future“ (1987) by the World Commission on

Environment and Development (also called the"Brundtland
Report")
Sustainability
• Sustainability has two scientific definitions:
sustainable resource harvest, such as a
sustainable supply of timber, meaning that the
same quantity of that resource can be
harvested each year (or other harvest interval)
for an unlimited or specified length of time
without decreasing the ability of that resource
to continue to produce the same harvest level.
• Sustainable ecosystem, meaning an
ecosystem that is still able to maintain its
essential functions and properties even
though we are harvesting one of its resources.
Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity is a concept related to sustainability.
It is usually defined as the maximum number of
individuals of a species that can be sustained by an
environment without decreasing the capacity of the
environment to sustain that same amount in the
future. Carrying capacity refers to the number of
individuals who can be supported in a given area
within natural resource limits, and without
degrading the natural social, cultural and economic
environment for present and future generations.
The carrying capacity for any given area is not fixed.
It can be altered by improved technology, but mostly
it is changed for the worse by pressures which
accompany a population increase.
Carrying capacity
As the environment is degraded, carrying capacity
actually shrinks, leaving the environment no
longer able to support even the number of
people who could formerly have lived in the area
on a sustainable basis. No population can live
beyond the environment's carrying capacity for
very long. When we ask "What is the maximum
number of people that the Earth can sustain?" we
are asking about the Earth's carrying capacity and
we are also asking about sustainability
Carrying Capacity
Carrying Capacity
Science and Values
Science and Values

Deciding what to do about an environmental problem
involves both values and science.
Placing a value on various aspects of the environment
requires knowledge and understanding of the science
but also depends on our judgments concerning the uses
and aesthetics of the environment and on our moral
commitments to other living things and to future
generations.
Ecological knowledge provides options for
environmental action, choices are determined in part by
our values; science tells us what we can do, while our
values help us determine what we should do.
Placing a value on the environment
How do we place a value on any aspect of our
environment?
• The value of the environment is based on following
justifications:
–Aesthetic,
–creative,
–recreational,
–inspirational,
– moral,
–cultural,
–ecological, and
–utilitarian.
Placing a value on the environment
• Aesthetic justification has to do with appreciation of
the beauty of nature. (e.g. many people find
wilderness scenery beautiful and would rather live in
a world with wilderness than without it).
• Nature is an aid to human creativity/inspiration

(creative/inspiration justification).
• Moral justification has to do with the belief that

various aspects of the environment have a right to
exist and that is our moral obligation to allow them
to continue or help them to persist.
Ecological value: some factors that is essential to larger
life support functions, even though it may not benefit an
individual directly ((e.g. mangrove )
Aesthetic value: the beauty of nature. Required for
recreation , inspiration and creativity
SRH G&E DU 31 07/15/2021
Environmental values
Moral justification:
Conduct considered as good for the environment. It has led to the
development of another discipline-environmental ethics. Moral
justification has to do with the belief that various aspects of the
environment have a right to exist and that is our moral obligation
to allow them to continue or help them to persist.
Examples of Environmental Injustice are:
•Relocation of tanneries from developed countries to Bangladesh
in 1960s and 1970s
•Textile dying and finishing
•Disposal of hazardous waste in poor countries by rich countries
•Relocation of power hungry and polluting industries from
developed countries to under-developed countries
Moral justification: Value Judgment
Major Environmental and resource Problems
Air Pollution
• Global climate change Biodiversity Depletion
• Stratospheric ozone • Habitat destruction
depletion • Habitat degradation
• Urban air pollution • Extinction
• Acid deposition Food Supply Problems
• Overgrazing
• Outdoor pollutants
• Farmland loss and
• Indoor pollutants
• Noise Major degradation
• Overfishing
Environmental and
• Coastal pollution
resource Problems
• Soil erosion
• Soil salinization
Water Pollution
• Soil waterlogging
• Sediment
• Water shortages
• Nutrient overload
• GW depletion
• Toxic chemicals
• Biodiversity loss
• Infectious agents Waste Production • Malnutrition
• Oxygen depletion • Solid waste
• Pesticides • Hazardous waste
• Oil spills
• Thermal pollution
The Gaia Hypothesis
Awareness of how people at a local level affect the environment

globally gives credence to the Gaia hypothesis. Future
generations will need a global perspective on environmental
issues.
So, awareness of the global interactions between life and the
environment has led to the development of the Gaia hypothesis,
originated by British chemist James Lovelock and American
biologist Lynn Margulis.
The Gaia hypothesis is an ecological hypothesis that proposes that
living and nonliving parts of the earth are a complex interacting
system that can be thought of as a single organism. The Gaia
hypothesis-named for Gaia, the Greek goddess Mother Earth-has
become a hotly debated subject. This hypothesis postulates that
all living things have a regulatory effect on the Earth's
environment that promotes life overall.
Gaia Hypothesis.
• In the early 1970s, James lovelock theorized that earth
behaves like a superorganism, and this concept developed
into what is now known as the Gaia hypothesis.
• The hypothesis states that life manipulates the environment
for the maintenance of life. For example, some scientists
believe that algae floating near the surface of the ocean
influence rainfall at sea and the carbon dioxide content of the
atmosphere, thereby significantly affecting the global
climate.
• According to james lovelock, (gaia hypothesis) earth is
superorganism and compared the cycling of nutrients from
soils and rocks in streams and rivers to the circulation of
blood in an animal. In this metaphor, the rivers are the
arteries and veins, the forests are the lungs, and the oceans
are the heart of earth.
Gaia hypothesis
The Gaia hypothesis is really a series of hypotheses:
• The first is that life, since its inception, has greatly
affected the planetary environment. Few scientists
would disagree.
• The second hypothesis asserts that life has altered
Earth's environment in ways that have allowed life
to persist. Certainly, there is some evidence that
life has had such an effect on Earth's climate.
• A popularized extension of the Gaia hypothesis is
that life deliberately (consciously) controls the
global environment. Few scientists accept this
idea.
Air Pollution
• Overgrazing
• Overfishing
Environmental and
resource Problems
• Soil erosion
Water Pollution
• Sediment
• Water shortages
• GW depletion
• Toxic chemicals
• Oil spills
Summer 2020
Env 107

Faculty: ARK
Lecture 2 &3
Issues and Values
The Earth's Life-support Systems
What Are the Major Parts of the Earth's Life Support Systems?
• The area near the surface of the earth can be divided into
four inter-connected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere.
• The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek
words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water (hydro), and life
(bio).
So We can think of the earth as being made up of several
spherical layers .
• The atmosphere (and the stratosphere)
• The hydrosphere
• The lithosphere
• The biosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere
Hydrosphere
Structure of The Earth
• The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet.

Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface
where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen
and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is
composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses.
• The atmosphere is a thin envelope or membrane of air around the
planet. Its inner layer, the troposphere, extends only about 17
kilometers (11 miles) above sea level but contains most of the
planet's air, mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).
• The next layer, stretching 17-48 kilometers (11-30 miles) above the
earth's surface, is the stratosphere. Its lower portion contains
enough ozone (03) to filter out most of the sun's harmful
ultraviolet radiation, thus allowing life to exist on land and in the
surface layers of bodies of water.
The hydrosphere consists of the earth's (1) liquid water

(both surface and underground), (2) ice (polar ice,
icebergs, and ice in frozen soil layers, or permafrost), and
(3) water vapor in the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is
composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This
includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture
in the air. Ninety-seven percent of the earth's water is in
the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh water;
three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice
sheets;
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire
planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed ofminerals.
It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of
Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.
•The lithosphere is the earth's crust and upper mantle; the

crust contains nonrenewable fossil fuels and minerals we use
as well as renewable soil chemicals (nutrients) needed for
plant life.
•The biosphere is the portion of the earth in which living
(biotic) organisms exist and interact with one another and
with their nonliving (abiotic) environment. The biosphere is
composed of all living organisms. Plants, animals, and one-
celled organisms are all part of the biosphere. Most of the
planet's life is found from three meters below the ground to
thirty meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the
oceans and seas.
•
The biosphere includes most of the hydrosphere
and parts of the lower atmosphere and upper
lithosphere. It reaches from the deepest ocean
floor, 20 kilometers (12 miles) below sea level, to
the tops of the highest mountains. If the earth
were an apple, the biosphere would be no thicker
than the apple's skin.
The goal of ecology is to understand the

interactions in this thin, life-supporting global skin
or membrane of air, water, soil, and organisms
What Sustains Life on Earth?
Life on the earth depends on three interconnected factor:

• The one-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun,
• The cycling of matter (the atoms, ions, or molecules
needed for survival by living organisms) through parts
of the biosphere. The earth is closed to significant
inputs of matter from space. Thus essentially all the
nutrients used by organisms are already present on
earth and must be recycled again and again for life to
continue.
• Gravity, which (1) allows the planet to hold on to its
atmosphere and (2) causes the downward movement
of chemicals in the matter cycles.
Resources
From a human standpoint, a resource is anything obtained

from the environment to meet human needs and wants.
Examples include food, water, shelter, manufactured goods,
transportation, communication, and recreation.
Some resources, such as solar energy, fresh air, wind, fresh
surface water, fertile soil, and wild edible plants, are directly
available for use.
Other resources, such as petroleum (oil), iron, groundwater
(water found underground), and modem crops, are not
directly available. They become useful to us only with some
effort and technological ingenuity. For example, petroleum
was a mysterious fluid until we learned how to find, extract,
and convert (refine) it into gasoline, heating oil, and other
products that we could sell at affordable prices.

The classification of natural resources:
Renewable resources:
• Perpetually available - solar energy; it is renewed
continuously. Solar energy is expected to last at least 6
billion years as the sun completes its life cycle;
• Renew themselves over short periods - On a human
time scale, a renewable resource can be replenished
fairly rapidly (hours to several decades) through
natural processes as long as it is not used up faster
than it is replaced. Examples are (1) forests, (2)
grasslands, (3) wild animals, (4) fresh water, (5) fresh
air, and (6) fertile soil.
Non-renewable resource:
• Resources that exist in a fixed quantity or stock in the
earth’s crust are called non-renewable resources. On a
time scale of millions to billions of year, geological
processes can renew such resources. Example include-
fossil fuel.
Resources:
• Renewable resources:
– Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave
energy
– Renew themselves over short periods: timber,
water, soil
• These can be destroyed
• Non-renewable resources: can be depleted
– Oil, coal, minerals
Resources:
Resources
Resources that exist in a fixed quantity or stock in the earth's
crust are called nonrenewable resources. Nonrenewable
on a human time scale, but can be renewable on a
geological time scale.
Renewable (direct solar energy, winds, tides, flowing water)
and Non-renewable resources (fossil fuels, metallic
minerals-iron, copper and non-metallic minerals-clay, sand
are also known as material resource.
These exhaustible resources include (1) energy resources
(such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which cannot be recycled),
(2) metallic mineral resources (such as iron, copper, and
aluminum, which can be recycled), and (3) nonmetallic
mineral resources (such as salt, clay, sand, and
phosphates, which usually are difficult or too costly to
Classification of resources
Resources
Renewable resources can be depleted or degraded. The
highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used
indefinitely without reducing its available supply is called
its sustainable yield.
If we exceed a resource's natural replacement rate, the
available supply begins to shrink, a process known as
environmental degradation. Examples of such degradation
include (1) urbanization of productive land, (2)
waterlogging and salt buildup in soil, (3) excessive topsoil
erosion, (4) deforestation, (5) groundwater depletion, (6)
overgrazing of grasslands by livestock, (7) reduction in the
earth's forms of wildlife (biodiversity) by elimination of
habitats and species, and (8) pollution.

Resources
• An ecological resource is anything required by an
organism for normal maintenance, growth, and
reproduction. Examples: habitat, food, water, and shelter.
• An economic resource is anything obtained from the
environment to meet human needs and wants.Examples:
food, water, shelter, manufactured goods, transportation,
communication, and recreation.
• A natural resource is any form of matter or energy that is
obtained from the physical environment to meet human
needs.
• Natural resources: Forrest, water, Land

Minerals,Energy,Food
Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity refers to the number of individuals who can
be supported in a given area within natural resource limits,
and without degrading the natural social, cultural and
economic environment for present and future generations.
The carrying capacity for any given area is not fixed. It can be
altered by improved technology, but mostly it is changed for
the worse by pressures which accompany a population
increase.
As the environment is degraded, carrying capacity actually
shrinks, leaving the environment no longer able to support
even the number of people who could formerly have lived in
the area on a sustainable basis. No population can live
beyond the environment's carrying capacity for very long.
Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity tells us that the biophysical limits of

our environment are key in determining how many
human can survive at what levels of consumption.
The realization of difficulties in assessing the carrying

capacity of Humans, gave rise to
The IPAT Equation
which pointed out that carrying capacity for humans
was a function not only of population size, but also
of differing levels of consumption, which in turn are
affected by the technologies involved in production
and consumption.
The first model Population, Consumption, and
Environmental Impact
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich and physicist John P.
Holdren proposed the first simple model IPAT:
I= PxAxT
Here,
I = environmental Impact
P = number of people
A = affluence or consumption of persons
T = resources used/waste produced
Sticking them together
If you increase the number of people OR the

consumption per person OR the resources used
(producing waste) you increase the Impact;
Therefore, the more people we get that live at a
higher level (and consume more per person) the
greater the impact we have on the environment.
This is absolutely a simple equation but an important
concept to think about the sustainability issue.
The ecological footprint is a measure of The
human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. “ecological
The ecological footprint is one way of
measuring the impact a person has on the
footprint”
environment. It compares human demand
with planet Earth's ecological capacity to
regenerate. It represents the amount of
biologically productive land and sea area
needed to regenerate the resources a human
population consumes and to absorb and
render harmless the corresponding waste.
Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth’s

carrying capacity:
We are using 30% more of the planet’s resources
than are available on a sustainable basis!
Ecological footprints are not all equal
The ecological footprints of
countries vary greatly:
– The U.S. footprint is

almost 5 times greater
than the world’s
average;
– Developing countries
have much smaller
footprints than
developed countries.
Ecological footprints: methodological constraints
• However, there have been differences in the methodology
used by various ecological footprint studies. Examples
include:
• how sea area should be counted, how to account for fossil

fuels, which data sources used, when average global
numbers or local numbers should be used when to look at a
specific area, how space for biodiversity should be
included, etc.
Per capita Co2 emissions (tons) & Ecological Footprint
(gha/pers) in 2006
Country Rank Co2 emission EF
Bangladesh 181 0.3 0.5

UK 41 9.4 6.1
Netherlands 27 10.3 4.6
USA 9 19 9.0
United Arab Emirates 2 32.8 10.3
Qatar 1 56.2 9.7

Calculating Ecological Footprints
Why do you think the ecological footprint for the people in
Bangladesh is so small? Why is it so large for people living
in the United States?
Go to the online footprint calculator

http://www.myfootprint.org/en/ and take the test to determine
your own personal ecological footprint.
Name three actions that you would like to follow to reduce

your ecological footprint.
What is an “environmental problem”?
– The perception of what constitutes a problem varies

between individuals and societies:
– Ex.: DDT, a pesticide
• In developing countries: welcome because it kills
malaria-carrying mosquitoes
• In developed countries: not welcome, due to health
risks. Also Asbestos.
We face challenges in agriculture
• Expanded food production led to increased population

and consumption
• It’s one of humanity’s greatest achievements, but at an

enormous environmental cost
• Nearly half of the planet’s land surface is used for
agriculture
• Chemical fertilizers
• Pesticides
• Erosion
• Changed natural systems
We face challenges in pollution
• Waste products and artificial chemicals used in farms,
industries, and households
Each year, millions of people die from pollution

We face challenges in climate
Scientists have firmly concluded that humans are changing
the composition of the atmosphere;
• The Earth’s surface is warming:
• Melting glaciers
• Rising sea levels
• Impacted wildlife and crops
• Increasingly destructive weather
Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide

concentrations have risen by 37%, to the highest level in
650,000 years.
We face challenges in biodiversity
• Human actions have driven many species extinct, and
biodiversity is declining dramatically;
• We are at the onset of a mass extinction event.
Biodiversity loss may be our biggest environmental problem; once a species is

extinct, it’s gone forever
Air Pollution
• Overgrazing
• Overfishing
Environmental and
resource Problems
• Soil erosion
Water Pollution
• Sediment
• Water shortages
• GW depletion
• Toxic chemicals
• Oil spills
Pollution
Any addition to air, water, soil, or food that threatens the

health, survival, or activities of humans or other living
organisms is called pollution. An undesirable change in
the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the
air, water, soil or food that threatens the health, survival,
or activities of humans or other living organisms is called
pollution.
Pollutants can enter the environment
• (1) naturally (for example, from volcanic eruptions) or
• (2) through human (anthropogenic) activities (for
example, from burning coal).
Pollution
Pollutants can enter the environment

(1) naturally (for example, from volcanic eruptions) or
(2) through human (anthropogenic) activities (for example,
from burning coal).
Most pollution from human activities occurs in or near urban
and industrial areas, where pollutants are concentrated.
Industrialized agriculture also is a major source of pollution.
Some pollutants contaminate the areas where they are
produced; others are carried by wind or flowing water to
other areas.
Pollution Source:
•Naturally (from volcanic eruptions),
•human activities (from burning coal),
•Industrialized agriculture
Pollution
Pollutant sources:
• Point sources, where pollutants come from single,
identifiable sources. Examples are the (1) smokestack of a
coal-burning power plant, (2) drainpipe of a factory, or (3)
exhaust pipe of an automobile.
• Nonpoint sources, where pollutants come from dispersed
(and often difficult to identify) sources. Examples are (1)
runoff of fertilizers and pesticides (from farmlands, golf
courses, and suburban lawns and gardens) into streams
and lakes and (2) pesticides sprayed into the air or blown
by the wind into the atmosphere.
Pollution
The other types of pollutants are:

Degradable pollutants: can be decomposed, removed, or
consumed and thus reduced to acceptable level by natural
physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Nondegradable pollutants: cannot be broken down by
natural processes. E.g., the toxic elements lead and
mercury.
Complex chemical pollutants broken down (metabolized)
into simpler chemicals by living organisms (usually by
specialized bacteria) are called biodegradable pollutants.
Example: human sewage in river is biodegradable fairly
quickly by bacteria if the sewage is not added faster than
it can be broken down.
Pollution
There are two classes of degradable pollutants:

Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: takes decades or
longer to degrade. E.g., insecticide DDT and most plastics.
Rapidly degradable or non-persistent pollutants: human
sewage and animal and crop wastes (decomposed by
microbes).
Factors determining the severity of the pollutants:
• Chemical nature of the pollutants
• Concentration of the pollutants e.g. ppm, ppb and or ppt.
• Pollutant’s persistence.
ppm: number of parts of pollutants found in 1 million parts of a mixture of gas/liquid or solid.
ppb: number of parts of pollutants found in 1 billion parts of a mixture of gas/liquid or solid.
ppt: number of parts of pollutants found in 1 trillion parts of a mixture of gas/liquid or solid.
Pollution
Nonthreshold: harmful to a particular organism in any

concentration. Examples: mercury, lead etc.
Threshold: harmful only above given conc. Examples: DDT
and arsenic
Acute effects of the pollutants: Occurs shortly after the
exposure.
Chronic effects of the pollutants: Takes place over a long
period of time. (continued at low conc. exposure)
Synergism: The sum of individual effects of pollutants (acting
alone) is much less than that of pollutants acting together.
E.g., asbestos workers who smoke have a much higher
chance of getting lung cancer.
Pollution
What Types of Harm Do Pollutants Cause? Unwanted

effects of pollutants include the following:
• Disruption of life-support systems for humans and other
species
• Damage to wildlife, human health, and property
• Nuisances such as noise and unpleasant smells,tastes, and
sights
Solutions: What Can We Do About Pollution?
We use two basic approaches to deal with pollution:
(1) prevent it from reaching the environment or (2) clean it
up if it does.
Pollution
(1) Pollution prevention or input pollution control reduces

or eliminates the production of pollutants. We can
prevent (or at least reduce) pollution by following the five
Rs of resource use:
• refuse (do not use),
• replace (find a less harmful sustitute),
• reduce (use less),
• reuse, and
• recycle.
(2) Pollution cleanup or output pollution control involves
cleaning up pollutants after they have been produced to
acceptable levels
Free-Access Resources and Tragedy of the Commons
One cause of environmental degradation is the overuse of
common-property or free-access resources. Such resources
are owned by no one (or jointly by everyone in a country or
area) but are available to all users at little or no charge.
Examples include (1) clean air, (2) the open ocean and its
fish, (3) migratory birds, (4) wildlife species, (5) publicly
owned lands (such as national forests, national parks, and
wildlife refuges), (6) gases of the lower atmosphere, and
(7) space.
Tragedy of the Commons (Garrett Hardin, 1968)
In 1968, biologist Garrett Hardin called the degradation of
renewable free-access resources and the tragedy of the
commons. It happens because each user reasons, "If I do not
use this resource, someone else will. The little bit I use or
pollute is not enough to matter
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy

which considers the ethical relationship between human beings
and the natural environment. It exerts influence on a large range
of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics,
ecology and geography.
There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with
respect to the environment. For example:
•Should we continue to clear forests for the sake of human

consumption?
•Should we continue to make gasoline powered vehicles,
depleting fossil fuel resources while the technology exists to
create zero-emission vehicles?
•What environmental obligations do we need to keep for future
generations?
Sustainable solutions exist
We must develop solutions that protect both of our

quality of life and the environment:
• Organic agriculture
• Technology
– Reduces pollution
• Biodiversity
– Protect species
• Waste disposal
– Recycling
• Alternative fuels
Sustainability: a goal for the future
• How can humans live within the planet’s means?

– Humans cannot exist without functioning natural systems
• Sustainability
– Leaves future generations with a rich and full Earth
– Conserves the Earth’s natural resources
– Maintains fully functioning ecological systems
• Sustainable development: the use of resources to satisfy

current needs without compromising future availability of
resources
Current Emphasis Sustainability Emphasis
Pollution cleanup Pollution prevention
Waste disposal
Waste prevention
(bury or burn)
Protecting species Protecting habitat
Environmental Environmental
degradation restoration
Increasing resource Less resource waste

use
Population growth Population stabilization
Depleting and
degrading natural Protecting natural
capital capital
Environmental Science
Environmental science, the study of the interactions among the

physical, chemical and biological components of the environment.
Environmental science is the science of the relationship between man
and the natural world in which he lives. Environmental Science
provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to
the study of environmental systems.
Environmental study
Environmental study is the systematic study of human interaction with

their environment. It is a broad field of study that includes the natural
environment, built environments, social environments, organizational
environments, and the sets of relationships between them.
Environmental science is not environmentalism
Environmentalism
A social movement dedicated to
protecting the natural world
Env 107
Introduction to Environmental
Science
Faculty: ARK
2020
Lecture 5 & 6
Ecology & Ecosystem
Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is made up of all the living and
nonliving things in an environment.
Different types of organisms live in
an ecosystem.
A group of organisms
of the same kind
living in the same
place is a
population.
All the population that live in an ecosystem at the same
time form a community.
All members of a community live
in the same ecosystem but they
do not all live in the same part of
the ecosystem.
Where Plants and Animals Live
Habitat is a place where plants and

animals lives.
It is a place where they can meet their needs.
Animals get food, water, and shelter from their
habitat,
Organisms and their Habitats
• Some organisms can survive only in certain
habitats.
• For example, a polar could not find the water
it needs in a desert.
Ecology
The term ecology is derived from the Greek words
oikos (household or place to live and logos (law or
study of). Ecology is the interrelationships
between organisms and their living (biotic) and
nonliving (abiotic) environments.
Eecology is the study of how organisms interact with
one another and with their non-living environment
(including such factors as sunlight, temperature,
moisture, and vital nutrients).
The Nature of Ecology
Ecosystem Organization
• Communities
– Populations of the different
species occupying a particular
place
– Biological community
• Populations
– Group of interacting individual
of the same species that
occupy a specific area a the
same time.
• Organisms
– Any living organism
96
Universe
Galaxies
??
Supermacro Or Solar Systems
Biosphere
Cosmic World
(the very large) Planets
Earth
Biosphere
Ecosystems Ecosystems
Communities Realm
of Ecology
Populations
Macro world Life
(the ordinary Organisms
Communities
Organ Systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells Populations
Borderline Protoplasm
Micro world
(the very small Molecules
Nonlife Organisms
Atoms
Subatomic Particles
Ecology
Organism : An organism is any form of life. A wide
range and variety of organisms is present on the
earth-from the single-celled amoeba to huge
sharks, from microscopic blue-green algae to
massive banyan trees.
Species: Groups of organisms that resemble one
another in appearance, behavior, chemistry and
genetic structure form a species. Organisms of the
same species can breed with one another and
produce fertile offspring under natural conditions.
Ecology &Ecosystem
Populations :Individual organisms of the same species
live together in groups that interbreed and share
genetic material; such groups are called popula
tions. A population is a group of individuals of the
same species occupying a given area at a given
time.
Community: All of the populations of different species

that live in an area interact with one another as a
community
Ecology &Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of different species
interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment of matter and energy.
An ecosystem may be small, such as a particular
stream or field or a patch of woods, desert.
Or The units may be large, generalized types of
terrestrial (land) ecosystem such as a particular
type of grassland, forest.
Examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an
estuary, a grassland.
Ecology & Ecosystem
Some types of ecosystems
Some types of ecosystems
Desert Ecosystems
• Deserts are very dry
ecosystems.
• Desert plants and

animals can survive
with very little water.
Desert Plants
• Desert plants, such as
cactus, have thick stems
that store water.
• The roots of a cactus lie
just below the soil and
spread far from the
plant.
Grassland Ecosystems
• Grasslands are dry,
often flat areas of land
that are hot in the
summer and cold in the
winter.
• They get more rain and
snow than deserts but
less that most other
ecosystems.
Saltwater Ecosystems
• Saltwater ecosystems are oceans.
• Oceans cover about three –fourths of Earth’s
surface, so there are more saltwater
ecosystems than any other.
Sharks, sea turtles, corals and
octopus are all ocean animals.
So are whales and seals.
Freshwater Ecosystems
• Rivers, ponds, lakes and streams
have fresh water.
• Lakes and rivers are closely tied.
Some lakes are the source for
some rivers. Important rivers,
most often, originate from lakes.
Some rivers end in lakes.
• Since both rivers and lakes are
freshwater and flow in and out of
each other, they share similar
characteristics and many species
reside in both habitats.
Forest Ecosystems
Forest are ecosystems

in which many trees
grow.
Ecosystem What I look like
Desert Hot and dry
Rains every day and has many trees

Rain Forest
and plants
Enough rain for trees to grow. They

Deciduous Forest
lose their leaves in the fall.
Made up of rivers, ponds, lakes and

Freshwater
streams and my water does not have
Ecosystems
much salt
• Examples of Ecosystems: Aquatic ecosystem
Examples of Ecosystems: Desert ecosystem
Examples of Ecosystems : Agro ecosystem
Examples of Ecosystems: Urban ecosystem
Ecosystem
• Basic characteristics of Ecosystem:
• Structure: An ecosystem has both living
(communities of interacting species) and nonliving
(rocks, water, and air) parts.
• Process: Two basic kinds of processes must occur in
the ecosystem: a cycling of chemical elements and a
flow of energy.
• Change: An ecosystem changes over time and can
undergo development through a process called
succession.
Components of ecosystem:
Ecosystem can be separated into two parts:
Abiotic or nonliving components (water, air, nutrients,
solar energy).
Biotic or living components (plants, animals,
microorganisms, sometimes called biota).
Major nonliving components of Ecosystem: Physical
and Chemicals
Major living components of Ecosystem: Living
organisms in ecosystems usually are classified as
producers, consumers and decoposers
Components of an Ecosystem
ABIOTIC BIOTIC COMPONENTS

COMPONENTS
Sunlight Primary producers
Temperature Herbivores
Precipitation Carnivores
Water or moisture Omnivores
Soil or water chemistry Detritivores
Major nonliving components of Ecosystem
Some Physical factors in land (terrestrial)
ecosystems are-
• Sunlight
• Temperature
• Precipitation
• Wind
• latitude (distance from the equator)
• altitude (distance above sea level)
• frequency of fire
• nature of the soil
Major nonliving components of Ecosystem
For aquatic ecosystems, major physical factors
include:
• water currents,
• Light penetration
• Salinity
• Dissolved nutrient concentrations (such as
nitrogen and phosphorus etc), and
• the amount of suspended solid material.
Major Living Components of an Ecosystem
• Living organisms in ecosystems usually are classified as

either producers or consumers, and decomposers,
based on how they get food.
• Producers, sometimes called autotrophs (self-feeders),
make their own food from compounds obtained from
their environment.
• Consumers depend directly or indirectly on food
provided by producers.
• On land, most producers are green plants.
• In freshwater and marine ecosystem, algae and plants
are the major producers.In open water the dominant
producers are phytoplankton.
Major components of Ecosystems
A Freshwater ecosystem
A fresh water ecosystem
• Most producers capture sunlight to make
carbohydrates (such as glucose, C6H1206) by
photosynthesis.
• carbon dioxide + water + solar energy
glucose + oxygen
• 6 CO2+ 6 H20 + solar energy C6H1206 + 602
• A few producers, mostly specialized bacteria, can
convert simple compounds from their
environment into more complex nutrient
compounds without sunlight, a process called
chemosynthesis.
All other organisms in an ecosystem are consumers, or
heterotrophs ("other feeders"), which get their energy
and nutrients by feeding on other organsms or their
remains.
Classes of consumers are:
• Herbivores/ primary consumers (plant eaters): They
feed directly on producers.
• Carnivores/ secondary consumers (meat eaters): feed
on other consumers. Those feeding only on primary
consumers are called secondary consumers
• Tertiary (higher-level) consumers: feed only on other
carnivores.
• Omnivores: eat both plants and animals. Examples
include pigs, rats, foxes, bears humans and many more
• Tertiary (higher-level) consumers: feed only on
Scavengers: feed on dead organisms that were
killed by other organisms or dies naturally.
Examples: Vultures, flies, crows, hyenas, and some
species of sharks and ants
• Detritivores: detritus feeders and decomposers,
which feed on detritus, or parts of dead organisms
and cast off fragments and wastes of living
organisms
• Detritus feeders (such as crabs, carpenter ants,
termites, and earthworms), which extract nutrients
from partly decomposed organic matter in leaf
litter, plant debris, and animal dung.
Decomposers (mostly certain types of bacteria and
fungi), which recycle organic matter in ecosystems.
They do this by (1) breaking down (biodegrading)
dead organic material (detritus) to get nutrients and
(2) releasing the resulting simpler inorganic com
pounds into the soil and water, where they can be
taken up as nutrients by producers.
Producer Herbivores Carnivore
Omnivore Decomposer
Env 107
Science
Faculty: ARK
2020
Lecture 5 & 6
Ecology & Ecosystem
(Food chains & Trophic structure)
Food chains & Trophic structure
All of the digesting and eating of one another that goes on
within ecosystems results in the cycling of energy through
the system by way of a food chain.
At the bottom of the food chain are the producers that use
sunlight and inorganic materials to make their own food
energy.
Primary consumers eat the producers, capturing some of
their chemical energy and using it to build their own body
tissues.
Secondary consumers eat the primary consumers, and
tertiary consumers eat the secondary consumers.
Trophic structure
Trophic structure is the pattern of movement of
energy and matter through an ecosystem. It is the
result of compressing a community food web into a
series of trophic level.
Ecologists assign each organism in an ecosystem to a

feeding level, or trophic level (from the Greek word
trophos, "nourishment"), depending on whether it
is a producer or a consumer and on what it eats or
decomposes.
Food chains & trophic level
• At each step, wastes are emitted, some energy is

returned to the environment, detritivores
consume the waste, and decomposers are there to
break down any remaining organic material.
• Thus, each step in the food chain is called a trophic

level. Producers form the first trophic level,
primary consumers are the second trophic level,
and so on.
Trophic level
A trophic level consists of all those organisms in a
food web that is the same number of feeding
levels away from the original source of energy.
Producers belong to the first trophic level,
Primary consumers to the second trophic level,
Secondary consumers to the third, and so on.
Detritivores and decomposers process detritus
from all trophic levels.
Food chains ,food webs & trophic level
The sequence of organisms, each of which is a source

of food for the next, is called a food chain. It
determines how energy and nutrients move from
one organism to another through an ecosystem
Most species participate in several different food

chains, the organisms in most ecosystems form a
complex network of interconnected food chains,
called a food web.
Simple Terrestrial food chain
An example of a simple terrestrial food chain would
be: grass (producer, photosynthetic autotroph),
eaten by a mouse (herbivorous primary consumer),
eaten by a snake (carnivorous secondary
consurner), eaten by a hawk (carnivorous tertiary
consumer), with wastes and dead bodies broken
down by decomposers (bacteria and fungi) and
consumed by earthworms and other detritivores.
Simple marine food chain
An example of a simple marine food chain would be:
algae (producer, photosynthetic autotroph), eaten
by krill (tiny, shrimplike animals, primary
consumers), eaten by whales and other marine
animals (omnivorous and carnivorous secondary
consumers), with wastes and dead bodies broken
down by decomposers and consumed by bottom
feeders, such as marine snails (detritivores).
Food chain: example
Rose plant -- aphids -- beetle -- chameleon -- hawk.
• In this food chain, the rose plant is the primary
producer. The aphids are the primary consumers
because they suck the juice from the rose plant.
The beetle is the primary carnivore because it eats
the aphids. The chameleon, a secondary carnivore,
eats the beetle. The hawk is the tertiary carnivore
because it eats the secondary carnivore, the
chameleon. The hawk eventually dies and its
remains are broken down by decay-causing
bacteria and fungi.
Except in deep-sea ecosystems, all food chains start

with photosynthesis and will end with decay.
Terrestrial
&
Marine
Food Chain
Food Web
In nature, simple food chains like these are not

common; real life is more complex.
For example, lots of animals in the ocean, not just
whales, eat krill. Hawks eat snakes, but they also
eat mice directly, as well as other small animals
such as voles or rabbits. And so on. When we
begin to consider the full complexity of the various
food and energy connections in an ecosystem, we
have a food web.
Food Web contd.
Real ecosystems are more complex. Most consumers

feed on more than one type of organism, and most
organisms are eaten by more than one type of
consumer. Because most species participate in
several different food chain, the organisms in most
ecosystems form a complex network of
interconnected food chains called a food web.
nsTrophic levels can be assigned in food webs just
as in food chains.
Terrestrial Food Web
Env 107
Science
Faculty: ARK
2020
Lecture 5 & 6
Ecology & Ecosystem
(Food chains & Energy Flow in Ecosystem)
Food web
Food Web
Food Chain and Energy Flow in Ecosystem
Each animal in the food chain eats another animal or

a plant in order to gain energy.
The energy flow in the ecosystem keeps all of the
animals alive. Through metabolism, organisms
derive food energy from the environment by
manufacturing it themselves, by eating other
organisms, or by eating organic compounds
produced by other organisms.
Energy and Material Flow in Ecosystem
Pyramids of Energy flow
(Ecological Pyramids)
An energy pyramid is the graphical representation of the
trophic levels (nutritional) by which the incoming solar
energy is transferred into an ecosystem. The source of
energy for living beings on Earth is the Sun.
Biomass: total amount of organic matter on earth, measured
as the amount per unit surface of earth
Biomass is increased through biological production
Biological production is the capture of usable energy from
the environment to produce organic compounds in which
that energy is stored
Pyramids of Energy flow (Contd)
Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
• Organisms that manufacture their own food
energy, either through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis, are autotrophs (from the Greek
auto, meaning "self," and troph, meaning
"nourishment"); they are also called producers.
• Organisms that derive their food energy from
secondary sources are heterotrophs (Greek hetero,
meaning "other"); they are also called consumers.
Ecological Energy Loss
•Food chain – chemical
energy is passed from one
organism to another
• Tropic level: where an

organism (population)
sits in the food chain
• Autotrophs: lowest
tropic level
• Top carnivore:
highest tropic level
Pyramids of Energy Flow Contd
• An energy pyramid’s shape shows how the amount

of useful energy that enters each level or chemical
energy in the form of food decreases as it is used
by the organisms in that level.
• Cell respiration “burns” food to release its energy,
and in doing so, produces ATP, which carries some
of the energy as well as heat, which carries the
rest. ATP is then used to fuel countless life
processes
• The consequence is that even though a lot of

energy may be taken in at any level, the energy
that ends up being stored there – which is the food
available to the next level is far less.
• Scientists have calculated that an average of 90%
of the energy entering each step of the food chain
is “lost” this way (although the total amount in the
system remains unchanged)
• The consumers at the top of a food pyramid, as a group,
thus have much less energy available to support them
than those closer to the bottom.
• That’s why their numbers are relatively few in most

communities. Eventually, the amount of useful energy left
can’t support another level.
• That’s why energy flow is depicted in the shape of a

pyramid. The energy that enters a community is
ultimately lost to the living world as heat
Pyramids of Energy Flow
An example of the trophic and energy pyramid.
Fig. 24.3 A trophic and energy pyramid. 160

Env 107
Science
Faculty: ARK
2020
Lecture 5 & 6
Ecology & Ecosystem
(Ecological Succession)
Ecological Succession
A cleared patch of The same ground 2 years
ground in Britain 2 years ago later
• Succession takes place because the environmental
conditions in a particular place change over time
• Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best
against other species under a very specific set of
environmental conditions
• If these conditions change, then the existing species will
be replaced by a new set of species which are better
adapted to the new conditions
• As an example, the environmental conditions present on
the bare patch of ground above would have been quite
different 2 years later
Before a community of plants (producers), consumers,
and decomposers can become established on land,
there must be soil:
Soil a complex mixture of rock particles, decaying organic
matter, air, water, and living organisms.
Depending mostly on the climate, it takes natural
processes several hundred to several thousand years to
produce fertile soil
Types of Succession
• Two kinds of succession:
• Primary Succession: The initial establishment &
development of an ecosystem. Primary succession
involves the gradual establishment of biotic
communities on nearly lifeless ground.
• Secondary Succession: Reestablishment of an
ecosystem. Secondary succession involves the
reestablishment of biotic communities in an area where
some type of biotic community is already present
Primary Succession
Primary Succession: Establishing life on lifeless ground.
Primary succession occurs when a community begins to
develop on a site previously unoccupied by living
organisms, such as an island, a sand or silt bed, a body
of water, or a new volcanic flow. Primary succession
begins with an essentially lifeless area where there is no
soil in a terrestrial ecosystem or no bottom sediment in
an aquatic ecosystem. Examples include (1) bare rock
exposed by a retreating glacier or severe soil erosion,
(2) newly cooled lava, (3) an abandoned highway or
parking lot, or (4) a newly created shallow pond or
reservoir.
Primary succession
following the retreat
of a glacier Succession in a bare rock
Primary Succession
Pioneer Species
Dandelion (in UK)

Moss
Secondary Succession
• If a primary succession is disturbed by a natural event,
such as a forest fire or a landslide, or by human
intervention, such as logging or clearing for agriculture,
the community that subsequently establishes itself and
develops on the disturbed site is a secondary
succession.
• Secondary succession occurs when an existing
community is disrupted and a new one subsequently
develops at the site. The disruption may be caused by a
natural catastrophe, such as fire or flooding, or by a
human activity, such as deforestation, plowing, or
mining. In each case, organisms modify the environment
in ways that allow one species to replace another.
Secondary Succession (cont)
• Secondary succession begins in an area where the
natural community of organisms have been disturbed,
removed, or destroyed but some soil or bottom
sediment remains.
• For example, abandoned croplands, burned or cut
forests, heavily polluted streams, flooded land, dammed
land
• As some soil/sediment is present, new vegetation can
usually begin to germinate within few weeks
• Seeds can be present in soil, or they can be carried from
nearby plants by wind or deposited in the droppings of
birds and animals.
Secondary Succession from a corn field
Secondary Succession in Carolina
ENV 107
2020
Faculty: ARK
Lecture on
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a combination of two words 'biological'
and 'diversity'. Biodiversity refers to the number,
variety and variability of all life forms on earth. These
include millions of plants, animals and micro-
organisms, the genes they contain, and the intricate
ecosystems of which they are a part.
Why Is Biodiversity Important?

The earth has an enormous variety of plants and
animals, both domesticated and wild, as also a wide
array of habitats and ecosystems.
Importance of Biodiversity
This diversity meets the food, medicinal, clothing, shelter,
spiritual as well as the recreational needs of millions of
people around the world.
It also ensures that ecological functions such as the
supply of clean water, nutrient cycling and soil
protection are maintained.
In fact, biodiversity loss would mean a threat to the
survival of the human race.
These are some reasons why each one of us should be
concerned about biodiversity and its loss.
This rich variety of genes, species, biological communities,
and life-sustaining biological and chemical processes
gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials,
industrial chemicals, and medicines, all of which pour
hundreds of billions of dollars into the world economy
each year and provides us with free recycling,
purification, and natural pest control services.
Loss of biodiversity (1) reduces the availability of
ecosystem services and (2) decreases the ability of
species, communities, and ecosystems to adapt to
changing environmental conditions. Biodiversity is
nature's insurance policy against disasters.
Bio-diversity of wild species are important because of the
economic, medical, scientific, ecological, aesthetic and
recreational value of all species.
Human beings are dependent for their health, well-

being and enjoyment of life on fundamental biological
systems & processes.
Scientitsts and researchers needs wild strain of genetic

resources for deriving improved crop and livestocks for
sustenance of supply to increased human needs
Humanity derives all of its food (almost 90%) from
domistication of wild species. Many medicines and
industrial products come from the wild and
domesticated components of biological diversity.
Biotic resources also serve recreation and tourism, and

underpin the ecosystems which provide us with many
services. Ecotourism is a billion dollar industry
worldwide per year.
While the benefits of such resources are considerable,

the value of biological diversity is not restricted to these.
Biodiversity also has important social and cultural
values.
In general, benefits arising from the conservation
of components of biological diversity can be
considered in three groups:
1.Ecosystem services, e.g. Protection of water resources,

Soils formation and protection, Nutrient storage and
cycling, Pollution breakdown and absorption.
2.Biological resources. e,g. Food, Medicinal resources,

Wood products, Ornamental plants.
3. Social benefits . e.g. Research, education and

monitoring, Recreation, Cultural values.
Ecological importance:
• Trees provide habitat and food for birds, insects, other
plants and animals, fungi, and micro-organisms;
• Insects, bats, birds, and other animals serve as
pollinators;
• Parasites and predators act as natural population
controls;
• Various organisms, such as earthworms and bacteria,
are responsible for recycling organic materials and
maintaining the productivity of soils;
• Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and replenish it with oxygen.
• Forests, for example, are particularly important "sinks"
for the absorption of carbon dioxide and thus are key
factors in reducing global climate change;
• Wetlands serve as sponges to reduce the impacts of
floods and to cleanse streams by filtering sediments,
nutrients, and contaminants from inflowing waters.
• The interaction of all these natural processes forms a
complex web of life. If any part of this web suffers or
breaks downs, the future of the other parts is
threatened. Humans are in many cases degrading and
destroying the ability of biological diversity to perform
the services mentioned above.
Economical importance:
• Food: species are hunted (e.g. antelopes, birds), fished
(e.g. cod, tuna fish), and gathered (e.g. fruits, berries,
mushrooms), as well as cultivated for agriculture (e.g.
wheat, corn, rice, vegetables) and aquaculture (e.g.
salmons, mussels). It is interesting to know that, of the
about 80,000 available comestible plants, humans use
less than 30 to satisfy 90% of our planet's alimentary
needs;
• Fuel: timber and coal are only two examples of natural
resources used to produce energy;
• Shelter and warmth: timber and other forest products
(e.g. oak, beech, pine) are used as building materials
and for shelter. Fibers such as wool and cotton are used
to make clothes;
• Medicines: both traditional medicines and processed
drugs are obtained from biodiversity: penicillin is
produced by a fungusand quinine from the bark of
cinchona trees;
• Other goods such as paper and pencils come from raw
materials provided by the biodiversity
Indirect Services
• Clean and drinkable water: only a small amount -

about 1% - of the water on our planet is usable directly.
The rest is either salty (97%) or frozen (2%). Forests
around the world filter our usable water again and
again, constantly replenishing the water we use for
drinking, bathing, and growing crops;
• air to breathe: plants around the world take carbon
dioxide out of the air and put oxygen into it - oxygen
that almost all creatures need to breathe
• Fertile soils: micro-organisms recycle the soil's organic

matter and maintain its fertility;
Indirect Services
• Pollination: insect, bird and bat species carry pollen

from one plant to another (or from one part of a plant
to another), thus fertilising fruit crops and flowers.
• Cultural importance:
• Plants and animals are often used as symbols, for
example in flags, paintings, sculptures, photographs,
stamps, songs and legends.
• Finally, biodiversity is also beautiful: it is a pleasure to
see and smell flowers in a field, to listen to birds
singing, etc.
Kinds of Biodiversity
Kinds of biodiversity include the following:
• Genetic diversity (variety in the genetic makeup among
individuals within a species)
• Species diversity (variety among the species or distinct
types of living organisms found in different habitats of the
planet).
• Ecological diversity (variety of forests, deserts, grasslands,
streams, lakes, oceans, coral reefs, wetlands, and other
biological communities)
• Functional diversity (biological and chemical processes or
functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed
for the survival of species and biological communities).
Kinds Biodiversity
• Ecosystem diversity (Which refers to the variety of
habitat types in an ecosystem and the biologic richness
of those habitats). or Habitat diversity: Habitat
diversity (the diversity of habitats in a given unit area)
• Domesticated diversity (When we think of biodiversity,
we tend to think only of wild plants and animals. But
there is also considerable diversity among
domesticated plants and animals. Domesticated
biodiversity may be the result of manipulation by
humans, or of natural adaptations to different
conditions over a period of time)
Biological Evolution:
Biological evaluation refers to the change in inherited
characteristics of a population from generation to generation.
Biological evaluation is one of the features that distinguish life
from everything else in the universe.
According to the theory of biological evaluation, new species

arise as a result of competition for resources and the
difference among individuals in their adaptations to
environmental conditions.
Biological evaluation explains the diversity of different species

that exist today.
How do new species evolve?
• Speciation, which derives from natural selection that allows species
to come out of one species;
• Speciation is the process of generating a new species.

Takes place in two phases, Geographic Isolation and Reproductive
Isolation;
• Geographic Isolation occurs when groups of the same species are

physically separated for long periods of time. This can be due to
migration, or physical barriers;
• Reproductive Isolation occurs when two geographically isolated

populations can no longer reproduce with one another. This
happens when mutations and natural selection act independently
on the two populations. This process as a whole is called
Divergence, or Divergent Evolution.
Speciation, Extinction & Biodiversity
Speciation is the process of generating a new
species. It derives from natural selection that allows
species to come out of one species; It is the
evolutionary process by which new biological species
arise. Under certain circumstances, natural selection
can lead to an entirely new species. In this process, two
species arise from one. So, Speciation is the evolution
of two species from one species because of divergent
natural selection in response to changes in
environmental conditions. It usually takes thousands of
years to take place.
How do new species evolve?
The most common mechanism of speciation (especially
among animals) takes place in two phases: Geographic
Isolation and Reproductive Isolation;
Geographic Isolation occurs when groups of the same
species are physically separated for long periods of time.
This can be due to migration, or physical barriers;
Reproductive Isolation occurs when two geographically
isolated populations can no longer reproduce with one
another. This happens when mutations and natural
selection act independently on the two populations. This
process as a whole is called Divergence, or Divergent
Evolution.
Geographic Isolation
Reproductive isolation
Reproductive isolation occurs when two geographically
isolated populations can no longer reproduce with one
another. This happens when mutations and natural
selection act independently on the two populations. This
process as a whole is called divergence, or divergent
Evolution.
If this process, called divergence, continues long enough,
members of the geographically and reproductively
isolated populations may become so different in genetic
makeup that (1) they cannot interbreed, or (2) if they do,
they cannot produce live, fertile offspring. Then one
species has become two, and speciation has occurred
through divergent evolution.
Extinction & Biodiversity
Extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of
organisms, normally a species. The moment of
extinction is generally considered to be the death of
the last individual of the group. The extinction of any
species is an irrevocable loss of part of the biological
richness of Earth, the only place in the universe
known to support living creatures.
Extinction occurs when conditions change, and a
species must either evolve, or move to a more
favorable area. If not, they will become extinct.
Extinction & Biodiversity
Local extinction occurs when a species disappears from
a part of its range but persists elsewhere.
Global extinction means that a species becomes extinct
everywhere.
As local environmental conditions change, a certain
number of species disappear at a low rate, called
background extinction.
In contrast, mass extinction is a significant rise in

extinction rates above the background level.
Causes of Extinction
Causes of extinction are usually grouped into five
categories:
Population risk,
Environmental risk,
Natural catastrophe,
Genetic risk, and
Human actions.
Population Risk: Random variations in population rates can
cause a species in low abundance to become extinct.
• Environmental Risk: Population size can be affected by
changes in the environment that occur from day to
day, month to month, year to year, even though the
changes are not severe enough to be considered
environmental catastrophes. Environmental risks
involve variation in the physical or biological
environment, including variations in predator, prey,
symbiotic, or competitor species.
• Natural Catastrophe: Fires, major storms,

earthquakes, and floods are natural catastrophes on
land; changes in currents and upwellings are ocean
catastrophes.
• Genetic Risk: Detrimental change in genetic
characteristics not caused by external
environmental changes is called genetic risk.
Genetic changes can occur in small populations
from reduced genetic variation, genetic drift, and
mutation.
• Human Actions cause extinction of species
through
(1) intentional hunting or harvesting (for commercial
purposes, for sport, etc);
(2)disruption or elimination of habitats; Human usage of
resources, logging, surface mining, conversion of forests
and grasslands for cropland, wetland loss.
(3) Introduction of new parasites (transported by
introduced species), predators (e.g. introduction of
exotic species such as dogs on islands caused extinction
of dodo birds, whose eggs, laid on ground, were easy
prey for dogs), or competitors of a species; and
(4) pollution of the environment.
(5) Accidental killing
(6) Urbanization
(7) Damming/Flooding
(8) Agricultural conversion
BIODEVERSITY –
EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
A species heading towards Biological Extinction can be Classified

as either endangered or threatened:
- Endangered: When few individual survivors that the species
soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range.
Captivity measures need to be taken. E.g. Panda, Alligator
- Threatened: a species is still abundant in its natural range but
is declining in its numbers and is likely to become endangered.
Example Otter
A species going to under ecological extinction can be classified as
either Rare or Isolated
- Rare: Species are so low that they are on the process of local
extinction
- Isolated: When the species are caught up in specific place and
can not play role in ecological activities
.
Threats to Biodiversity
 Natural extinctions – Climate changes due to plate
tectonics, variations in solar output, volcanic eruptions,
competition from other species,…
 An estimated 10,000 species/subspecies lost/yr
 1.4 million presently known
 Human Actions– Human usage of resources, logging,
surface mining, conversion of forests and grasslands for
cropland, wetland loss.
 “Endangered” – in imminent danger of extinction.
 “Threatened” – likely to become endangered, perhaps
locally in near future.
 “Vulnerable” – naturally rare or locally depleted, may be
listed in the future.
Endangered Species
Critically Endangered
• Harlequin toad (Costa • Seychelles scops-owl
Rica & Panama)
Vulnerable
• Verreaux's Sifaka Lemur • Yellow-crowned
(Madagascar) butterfly fish found in
Guam
Threatened Critically endangered
• Polar Bear • Corypha taliera Roxb
• A type of Palm in BD
Various types of species
• The various species may following types:
• Native Species: Species that normally live and thrive in
a particular ecosystem are known as native species.
• Ubiquitous species : Species that are found almost
everywhere are ubiquitous species. Humans are
ubiquitous, some bacteria (E. coli) as well.
• Endemic Species: A species that is native to a
particular area and not native elsewhere is called an
endemic species. Monterey pine is endemic to a
portion of California coast and exotic in New Zealand.
• Cosmopolitan species: A species with a broad
distribution, occurring all over the world wherever the
environment is appropriate, is called cosmopolitan
species. The moose is found both in North America and
Europe and is therefore a cosmopolitan species of
northern boreal forests.
• Nonnative species, Exotic, or alien species: Species
that migrate into an ecosystem or are deliberately r
accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans
are called nonnative species, exotic species, or alien
species.
• Indicator Species: Species that serve as early warnings
that a community or an ecosystem is being damaged
are called indicator species. Birds are excellent
biological indicators because they are found almost
everywhere and respond quickly to environmental
change.
• Keystone Species: The roles of some species in an
ecosystem are much more important than their
abundance. They are known as keystone species. In
tropical forests, various species of bees, bats, ants, and
hummingbirds play keystone roles by pollinating
flowering plants, dispersing seed or both.
Exotic Species in Bangladesh
• Ipil Ipil • Piranha

Exotic Species in Bangladesh (cont)
• African Cat Fish • Acacia

How to Protect Biodiversity?
There are three basic approaches:

• The Ecosystem Approach: preserving balanced
population of species in their native habitat,
establishing legally protected wilderness, park and
eliminating exotic species.
• The Species Approach: based on protecting
endangered species by identifying them, giving them
legal protection, preserving and managing their crucial
habitats, propagating them in captivity and
reintroducing them.
• The Wildlife Management Approach: Manage for
sustained yield (Game species), establishing harvest
quota, developing plans and programs, using
international treaties, protection of migration
Biodiversity in Bangladesh
• Bangladesh has about
–20 113 species of mammals,
–over 630 species of birds,
–125 species of reptiles
–22 species of amphibians.
–260 freshwater species and
–475 marine species.
–Other faunal species include: 327 mollusks and 66 corals.
• Bangladesh has been the abode of 5000 angiosperm species and
several subspecies. Of them 160 species are used as crops.
• The crops are rice, wheat, jute, pulses, oilseed plants, minor
cereals, sugar corps, fruit plants, vegetables, root rubber crops,
spices, forest trees, beverage crops, flowers, medicinal and
aromatic plants and other wild plants
Interaction Between Species
Species interact via:
• Competition: Negative outcome for both groups
• Symbiosis: Mutually benefited
• Predation or Parasitism: Benefits one and is
detrimental or harmful to the other
• Each type of interaction affects evolution, the

persistence of species and the overall diversity of life
Symbiosis
Symbiosis between Coral and Clownfish and the Anemone
Algae symbiosis in a coral reef
Predation
Parasitism
Parasitism in Tomato Parasitism: human &
Hornworm mosquito
Environmental factors influencing biodiversity
Factors that tend to increase diversity

• A physically diverse habitat.
• Moderate amounts of disturbance.
• A small variation in environmental conditions.
• High diversity at one trophic level, increasing the
diversity at another trophic level.
• An environment highly modified by life.
• Middle stages of succession.
• Evolution.
Environmental factors influencing biodiversity
Factors that tend to decrease diversity
• Environmental stress.
• Extreme environments.
• A severe limitation in the supply of exotic species.
• Extreme amounts of disturbance.
• Recent introduction of exotic species.
• Geographic isolation.

BIOGEOGRAPHY
Geography of Life: Occurrence of different species

at different parts of the world. The kinds and number
of species vary greatly from place to place on earth.
Biogeography is the geographic distribution of living

organisms and their communities. The most important
unit of biogeography is the biome, a large geographic
area characterized by its environmental attributes and
by the plants and animals that inhabit the area. In
order to conserve biological diversity, it is important to
understand these large-scale, global patterns, which
are known as Biogeography.
Wallace Realms: Biotic Provinces
A realm or biotic province is a region inhabited by
a characteristics set of Taxa (species, families,
orders) bounded by barriers that prevent the
spread of those distinctive kinds of life to other
regions and immigration of foreign species into it.
In 1876, the great British biologist Alfred Russell

Wallace divided world into six biogeographic
regions on the basis of fundamental features of
the animals found in those areas.
Wallace Realms: Biotic Provinces
Wallace referred to these regions as realms and

named them
1. Neartic (North America),
2. Neotropical (Central and South America)
3. Palaearctic (Europe, Northern Asia, and Northern
Africa),
4. Ethiopian (Central and Southern Africa)
5. Oriental(The Indian Subcontinent and Malaysia),
6. Australian.
These regions are referred to as Wallace realms

Wallace realms
The main biogeographic realms for animals are based on genetic factors.
E.g. within each realm, the vertebrates filling each realm are more similar to each
other than other vertebrates filling similar niches in other realms.
Bison and Pronghorn
antelope are the larger
mammalian herbivores in
North America;
Rodents fill niches in

South America
Kangaroos fill them

in Australia
Giraffes and Antelopes

fill the niches in
Central and South
Africa.
Biotic Province: Continental drift
Continental drift is the slow movement of continents, has

played a major role in both speciation and extinction.
Biotic Province
Continental drift
Biotic Province
The main biogeographic realms for animals are based on genetic factors.
E.g. within each realm, the vertebrates filling each realm are more similar to each
other than other vertebrates filling similar niches in other realms.
Biotic Province
• A biotic province is based on who is related to

who (characteristic set of taxa).
• Species within a biotic province are more closely
related to each other than to species within
other provinces.
• In two different biotic provinces, the same
ecological niche will be filled with species that
perform the same function and may look similar
but may have different genetic ancestries.
Biomes
A biome is a kind of ecosystem based on
climatic similarity, such as a desert,
tropical rain forest, or grassland.
The rule of climatic similarity:

Similar environments lead to the evolution
of similar organisms in terms of form and
function and to similar ecosystems. This is
known as the rule of climatic similarity and
leads to the concept of the biome.
Biomes : Evolution
• Convergent Evolution: The process by which
species evolve in different places of times and,
although they have different genetic heritages,
develop similar external forms and structures as
a result of adaptation to similar environments
• Divergent Evolution: Organisms with the same
ancestral genetic heritage migrate to different
habitats and evolve into species with different
external forms and structures, but continue to
have the same niche
Biomes:Convergent Evolution
1.Similar environmental conditions lead to the evolution of

species with similar adaptations and to similar ecosystems.
The plants evolved to adapt to environmental stresses and
potentials and have come to look alike and prevail in like
habitats. The ancestral differences between these look-
alike plants can be found in their flowers, fruits and seeds.
Example of Convergent Evolution
• The Joshua Tree of North America
• Saguaro Cactus of North America
•Giant Euphorbia of East Africa
They are members of three different families (two cactus and
one spurge). Similar shapes are results of evolution in similar
environment/desert climate
Biomes: Convergent Evolution
Joshua tree Saguaro cactus Euphorbia of East Africa
Given sufficient time and similar climates in different

areas, species similar in shape and form will tend to occur.
Biomes: Divergent Evolution
• Evolved from a common ancestor but developed in

widely separated regions
• A population is separated and then separated
subpopulations evolve separately but retain some
common characteristics
• Example:
• Ostrich in Africa
• Rhea in South America
• Emu in Australia
Biomes: Divergent Evolution
Ostrich in Africa Rhea in South America Emu in Australia

Earth’s Biomes
The Earth’s biomes , each with its own characteristic

dominant shapes and forms of life.
1. Tundras
- treeless plains that occur in the harsh climates of
low rainfall and low average temperature
- two types: artic tundra and alpine tundra
- parts have permafrost: permanently frozen ground
2. Taiga or Boreal Forests
- includes the forests of the cold climates of high
latitudes and high altitudes
- dominant life forms including moose and other large
mammals, small flowering plants and trees
Earth’s Biomes (Cont.)
3. Temperate Dedicious Forests

- occur in warmer climates than the boreal forest
4. Temperate Rainforest
- moderate temperatures, over 250 cm/year of rain
5. Temperate Woodlands
- Slightly drier climate than the deciduous forests
- fire is common and species adapt to it
6. Temperate Shrublands
- also called chaparral: miniature woodlands
7. Temperate Grasslands
- include many North American parries
8. Tropical Rain Forests
- high average temperature and rainfall
9. Tropical Seasonal Forest and Savannas
- high average temperature, low latitudes, abundant but seasonal rainfall
10. Deserts
- The driest region that vegetation can survive.
11. Wetlands
- Include freshwater swaps, marshes and bogs – all have standing water
12. Freshwaters
- Have phytoplankton and estuaries
13. Intertidal Areas
- Areas exposed to alternately to air during low tide and high tide
14. Open Ocean
- Also called the pelagic region
15. Bethos
- Bottom portion of the ocean
16. Upwellings
- Upward flows of ocean water
17. Hydrothermal Vents
- Occur in the deep ocean were plate tectonic processes create vents
Geographic Patterns of Life within Continent
Biome Pyramid
Terrestrial biomes
• Although there is some disagreement among scientists

on how to divide up the Earth’s biomes, most can
agree on the following eight:
• Tropical Rainforest
• Tropical Savanna
• Desert
• Chaparral
• Grassland
• Temperate Deciduous Forest
• Temperate Boreal Forest
• Tundra
ENV 107
Faculty: ARK
Fall-2020
Lecture 5 & 6
Biogeochemical Cycles
Geologic cycle
• Throughout the earth history, the materials on or near
the earth's surface have been created, maintained, and
destroyed by numerous physical, chemical, and
biochemical processes. Except during the early history of
our planet, the processes that produce the earth
materials necessary for our survival have periodically
reproduced new materials.
• Collectively, the processes are referred to as the
geologic cycle which is really a group of subcycles.
boundaries.
Geologic cycle
The processes that are responsible for formation

of earth materials are referred to as the
geologic cycles. It’s a group of subcycles:
• Tectonic cycle,
• Hydrologic cycle,
• Rock cycle, and
• Biogeochemical cycle.
Geologic cycle
The Earth
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and
fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is
also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial
planets.
• Earth formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago by
accretion from the solar nebula, and life appeared on its
surface within one billion years. The planet is home to
millions of species, including humans.
• The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its
geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist.
The planet is expected to continue supporting life for
another 500 million to 2.3 billion years.
The Earth
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and
fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is
also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial
planets.
• Earth formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago by
accretion from the solar nebula, and life appeared on its
surface within one billion years. The planet is home to
millions of species, including humans.
• The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its
geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist.
The planet is expected to continue supporting life for
another 500 million to 2.3 billion years.
The Structure of the Earth
Earth Interior
Latitude and Longitude
Latitude and Longitude (Source: Studyzone)
• Lines of latitude are also called parallels, as they are "parallel" to

the equator
• Equator is the imaginary line that runs all the way around the
world, dividing it into two equal halves. It is in the exact middle of
the latitude lines
• Why do you think Latitude (distance from the equator) has an
influence on ecosystems?
Earth Interior
Earth Interior
Structure of The Earth
Earth Interior
It can be divided into three parts, the core, mantle and
crust
The core: Can be divided into two parts, inner and outer
core. The inner core is 1200 km thick, the outer core
is 2270 km thick and is molten. Composed principally
of iron and nickel. The core gives us our magnetic
field, which may shield us from harmful radiation.
The mantle: 2885 km thick. Composed primarily of
olivine (Mg2SiO4). This can be divided into three
parts; the mesosphere (hot, but rigid, due to high
pressure), the 100-350 km asthenosphere (hot, weak
and plastic, like butter or tar) and the lithosphere
(cooler and rigid; brittle).
The core:
The core: The core has 2 part. Outer core which is liquid and
Inner core which is solid.
• We know about these 2 layers from monitoring waves from
earthquakes (seismology).
The core is very dense compared to the other layers and
scientists have decided that it must have heavier metals
than the crust and mantle. The main elements found in the
core are Nickel and Iron.
• Both these metals are magnetic, which is why the Earth has
a magnetic field
• This is essential for Earth because the magnetic field stops
solar winds from the Sun which would otherwise destroy all
life on Earth
The mantle
The mantle is about 2900km thick
It makes up about 66% of the total mass of the Earth
It is a layer of hot, partially molten rock
It is composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium and iron
The molten rock is known as magma and can be erupted in volcanic eruptions
Why is it important?
The tectonic plates move on the mantle due to convection currents
This causes:
Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Mountain formation
Ocean trench formation
A convection current is the circulation of a hot fluid (liquid or gas). It rises because it
is less dense and then as it cools it starts to sink again. This creates a circular
motion called a current.
The crust:
The most important layer for us is the crust because we

live on top of it.
The crust is very thin compared to the other layers,
much like the shell of an egg or the skin of an apple.
Continental crust is thick (ranging from 20km to 75km). Oceanic
crust is thin (ranging from about 5km to 10km)
The crust floats on the top of the mantle.
What is it made from?
The crust is made up of different types of rocks - igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic
The main types of rock are silicates (silicates are made from
silicon, Si and oxygen, O)
The crust:
The composition of the crust is quite different from the

whole earth. It is much more siliceous, consisting of
silicon, aluminum and lesser amounts of iron,
magnesium, calcium, potassium and sodium, balanced by
oxygen. The whole Earth contains much more iron. It is
composed of basalt rich oceanic crust and granitic rich
continental crust. The former is denser and rides lower on
the asthenosphere. Hence, the placement of the oceans.
• The lithosphere is brittle, consists of an upper mantle
region and all of the crust. It is only about 1/100 the
thickness of the Earth. The lithosphere floats on the
asthenosphere, which is the cause of earthquakes,
mountain building, etc.
• Earth's oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick. The
continental crust is less dense, with lighter-colored rock, that varies from 30 to 70
kilometers thick. The continental crust is older and thicker than the oceanic crust.
• Earth's oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick. The
continental crust is less dense, with lighter-colored rock, that varies from 30 to 70
kilometers thick. The continental crust is older and thicker than the oceanic crust.
The oceanic crust is made of iron and magnesium silicates

Some common ones are called basalt and gabbro
The continental crust is made of potassium, aluminium and sodium silicates

A common continental rock is called granite
Granite: Pink granite - often used for kitchen benches Basaltic rock columns
The crust is made of many types of rocks and hundreds of
minerals. These rocks and minerals are made from just 8
elements:
Oxygen (46.6%),
Silicon (27.72%),
Aluminum (8.13%),
Iron (5.00%),
Calcium (3.63%),
Sodium (2.83%),
Potassium (2.70%), and
Magnesium (2.09%).
The oceanic crust has more Silicon, Oxygen, and Magnesium. The
continental crust has more Silicon and Aluminum.
Earth’s Landforms
Earth’s Landforms
Landforms are the shapes of

the land on Earth's
surface.
There are three basic
types: plains, plateaus,
and mountains.
Geomorphology is the
science that studies how
landforms are made.
Planes: Plains are large, flat areas.
• Plains found near the ocean are called Coastal Plains.
• Plains found in the middle of a continent are called
Interior Plains.
Plateaus: Plateaus are flat, raised areas of land made of

horizontal rocks. The horizontal rocks were lifted up by
forces inside the Earth.
Mountains: Mountains are lands that rise high above the

surrounding land.
Geologic cycle
The processes that are responsible for formation

of earth materials are referred to as the
geologic cycles. It’s a group of subcycles:
• Tectonic cycle,
• Hydrologic cycle,
• Rock cycle, and
• Biogeochemical cycle.
Tectonic cycle
Tectonic cycle involves creation and destruction of the solid outer layer
of Earth, known as the lithosphere.
Tectonic processes are driven by forces deep within the earth. They
deform the earth's crust, producing external forms such as ocean
basins, continents, and mountains. These processes are collectively
known as the tectonic cycle.
• A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαῖρα
[sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid,[outermost shell of a rocky planet,
and can be identified on the basis of its mechanical properties. On
Earth, it comprises the crust and the portion of the upper mantle
that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or
greater. The outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined
on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.
• The lithosphere is about 100 km (60 mi) thick on average and is
broken into several large segments called plates, which are moving
relative to one another.
Tectonic cycle (Contd)
This cycle is driven by forces originating deep within

earth. The lithosphere is broken into at least twelve large
parts called plates that move relative to one another.
Plate tectonics is the slow movement of large segments of
earth’s outermost rock shell. These plates float on dense
material. lithosphere, it is not a continuous, uniform layer.
Rather, the lithosphere is broken into at least twelve large
parts called plates that move relative to one another.
As the lithospheric plates move over the asthenosphere,
which is thought to be a more or less continuous layer of
little strength below the lithosphere, the continents also
move. This moving of continents is called continental drift.
Tectonic Plates
Just like this cracked eggshell below, the earth is made up

of around 40 pieces of broken crust. These are called
tectonic plates. Tectonic plates can be composed of both
oceanic and continental crust. There are thought to be
about 30 or 40 tectonic plates
The 7 major ones are under the main continents
Tectonic Plates
Just like this cracked eggshell below, the earth is made up of around 40 pieces of
broken crust
eggshell
Current Plates of the World
The boundaries between plates are geologically

active areas where most earthquakes and
volcanic activities occur. There are three
types of boundaries:
Divergent, Convergent, and Transform faults.
Divergent plate boundary
It occurs at a spreading ocean ridge where
plates are moving away from one another
and new lithosphere is produced. This
process is known as seafloor spreading which
produces ocean basins.
Tectonic cycle
Tectonic cycle
Convergent plate boundary
• It occurs when plates collide. If one plate dives or
subducts beneath the leading edge of another, a
subduction zone is present and convergence may
produce linear mountain ranges (Andes in South
America). If two plates collide, a mountain range
such as Himalayas in Asia may form.
• Convergent boundaries (subduction zones) occur
when once platee dives beneath the leading edge
of another plate. This produces linear mountain
systems such as the Alps and the Himalayas.
Tectonic cycle contd
Convergent Plate Boundary
Convergent Plate Boundary
• Transform fault boundary
• Transform fault boundaries occur where one plate
slides past another, as, for example, the San
Andreas fault in California.
• Rates of plate motion relative to each other are
shown on Figure. In general the rates are about as
fast as your fingernails grow, but vary from about
2 to 15 centimeters per year.
Transform fault boundary
Plate tectonics has two kinds of important
environmental effects:
Physical:
changes in location and sizes of continents, alter
atmospheric and ocean circulation, and
Chemical:
• The materials of plates are subjected to heat and
pressure when the plates collide,
• Altered in chemical form.
• Materials are buried (including organic products
such as seashells).
• Converted to limestone, and vegetation.
• Converted to coal or natural gas
The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle
• The rock cycle is an ongoing

process where rocks form and
change into other types of rocks.
Rocks are always changing.
• Minerals that make up rocks are

always being shifted around by
the environment. Some rocks
turn into entirely new rocks! The
rock cycle never stops!
Rocks and Minerals
Minerals are natural, inorganic solids. Each mineral is

made of specific elements and has a specific crystal
structure. A mineral may be one element such as
copper (Cu) or gold (Au), or it may be a mixture of
several elements. About 2,500 different minerals have
been described.
Rocks are made of one or more minerals. Rocks are
aggregates of one or more minerals and the rock cycle
is the largest of the earth cycles.
There are three kinds of rocks:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic.
The Rock cycle: Rocks and Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring, solid, crystalline

substances with physical and chemical properties
that vary within known limits.
Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals and
the rock cycle is the largest of the earth cycles.
The rock cycle consists of several processes that
produce rocks and soils.
The rock cycle is a sequence of processes that
produces the three rock families: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. It depends on the
tectonic cycle for energy and on the hydrologic
cycle for water
The Rock Cycle
The Rock cycle
The Rock Cycle
17
Three classifications of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
• Igneous: Internal heat from the tectonic cycle produces
ignenious rocks from molted material near the surface,
such as lava from volcanoes.
• Sedimentary: Weak acids dissolve some chemical
elements and compounds from the rocks. This process
of weathering produces sediments. The sediments are
transported by wind, water, or the movement of
glaciers.
• Metamorphic: After sedimentary rocks are buried to
sufficient depth, they may altered by heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids. They are then transformed to
metamorphic rocks.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks get their name from the Latin word ignis,
meaning "fire." Igneous rocks are made from lava or
magma. Lava and magma are made of hot, melted
minerals. Lava is found on or near the Earth's surface.
Magma is found far beneath the Earth's surface.
Extrusive igneous rocks are made from lava that cooled

quickly. Extrusive rocks generally have either no
crystals or very tiny crystals. Example: Pumice, basalt,
obsidian, scoria, rhyolite, andesite.
Intrusive igneous rocks are made from slow-cooling

magma. Intrusive rocks have large crystals.
Example: Granite, gabbro, diorite.
Sedimentary Rocks
On Earth's surface, wind, ice, and water can break rock
into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another
place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop
from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can
be buried under other layers of sediments. Sometimes,
the sediments can even be made from seashells and
bodies of plants and animals. Fossils are found in
sedimentary rocks. After a long time the sediments can
be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In
this way, igneous rock can become sedimentary rock.
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks: sandstone, shale, siltstone,

conglomerate, coal
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: chemical limestone, halite
Organic Sedimentary Rocks: fossil-rich limestone,
coquina, coal
Metamorphic Rocks
These rocks get their name from the Greek words Meta
and Morphe, meaning 'a change of form‘.
Metamorphic rocks are made from older rocks, either
igneous or sedimentary. These rocks are changed by
great heat and/or pressure deep beneath the earth's
surface. The heat and pressure makes crystals in the
rock. If the rock already has crystals, the heat makes
the crystals larger. Sometimes the pressure flattens the
crystals into layers.
Foliated metamorphic rocks have layers or bands of
crystals. (slate, gneiss)
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do not have layers or
bands of crystals. (marble, quartzite)
The Hydrologic Cycle
Water Resources
• Water is essential for life and is the medium
in which all living processes (including
nutrient transportation, temperature
regulation, and waste disposal) occur.
• As far as we know, earth is the only place in
the universe where liquid water exists in
great quantities.
• Water covers about 70% of the earth's
surface.
Hydrologic or Water cycle
The hydrologic cycle is the movement of water from
the oceans, to the atmosphere, and back to the
oceans, by way of precipitation, evaporation, stream
runoff, and groundwater flow. This cycle is driven by
solar energy.
The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle collects, purifies,
and distributes the earth's fixed supply of water.
The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and
by gravity. Incoming solar energy evaporates water
from oceans, streams, lakes, soil, and vegetation.
About 84% of water vapor in the atmosphere comes
from the oceans, and the rest comes from land.
The main processes in this water recycling and purifying cycle
are
(1) Evaporation (conversion of water into water vapor),
(2) Transpiration (evaporation from leaves of water extracted
from soil by roots and transported throughout the plant),
(3) Condensation (conversion of water vapor into droplets of
liquid water),
(4) Precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, and snow),
(5) Infiltration (movement of water into soil),
(6) Percolation (downward flow of water through soil and
permeable rock formations to groundwater storage areas
called aquifers), and
(7) Runoff (down slope surface movement back to the sea to
resume the cycle).
• How Are Human Activities Affecting the Water Cycle?
• Withdrawing large quantities of fresh water from
streams, lakes, and underground sources. water
supplies.
• Clearing vegetation from land for agriculture, mining,
road and building construction, and other activities.
This (1) increases runoff, (2) reduces infiltration that
recharges groundwater supplies, (3) increases the risk
of flooding, and (4) accelerates soil erosion and
landslides.
• Modifying water quality by (1) adding nutrients (such
as phosphates and nitrates found in fertilizers)and
other pollutants and (2) changing ecological processes
that purify water naturally.
Biogeochemical Cycles or nutrient cycles
• The movement of nutrient elements through the
biosphere are called biogeochemical cycles.
• In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or
nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a chemical
element or molecule moves through both biotic
(biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere) compartments of Earth;
• As nutrients move through their biogeochemical
cycles, they may accumulate in certain portions of the
cycles and remain there for different periods of time.
These temporary storage sites such as the atmosphere,
the oceans and other bodies of water, and
underground deposits are called reservoirs.
Nutrient Cycles and Life
Nutrient cycles connect past, present, and future

forms of life. Some of the carbon atoms in your
skin may once have been part of an oak leaf, a
dinosaur’s skin, or a layer of limestone rock.
People who lived 25,000 years ago may have inhaled

some of the nitrogen molecules you just inhaled.
Nutrient Pools and Nutrient Flux
• Chemicals enter storage compartments – sinks
• Nutrient flux – the rate of exchange of nutrients

between pools. i.e. the amount of elements that
moves between compartments is the flux
• Nutrient pool – a specific component or

compartment where a nutrient resides; Can be
a single organism, a population, a community, a
trophic level, or an abiotic feature (e.g., lake,
soil, atmosphere, etc.);
D. T. Krohne, General Ecology
Earth system
Earth is an assemblage of open systems, each dependent upon the others for
the whole earth “organism” to operate. However, compared to the
universe, it is almost a closed system. Other than meteors, rarely any mass
exchange use to take place.
However, It is actually this marvelous interactions – within the earth’s open

system – that create the unique environment in which life on earth can
prosper.
No other planet has this combination of systems to promote a congenial

environment for smooth growth of life.
The Earth System
Sun
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
Components of Earth system
Atmosphere – The mixture of Gases that surrounds the earth.
Predominantly, nitrogen, Oxygen, carbondioxide, and water vapor.
Hydrosphere – All of earth’s water, including oceans, lakes, streams,
underground water, snow, and ice – excluding water vapor in the
atmosphere (considered as part of atmosphere)
Lithosphere (Geosphere)– The solid earth, principally composed of
rock and regolith ( the irregular blanket of loose, uncemented rock
particles).
Biosphere – all of the earth’s organisms, including both animal and
plant species.
* Presence of atmosphere and hydrosphere is the only property that

made our planet suitable for life, compared to other planets.
Biogeochemical Cycles
• The nutrient atoms, ions, and molecules that organisms need to
live, grow, and reproduce are continuously cycled from the
nonliving environment (air, water, soil, and rock) to living
organisms (biota) and then back again in what are called nutrient
cycles, or biogeochemical cycles (literally, life-earth-chemical
cycles).
• They are called cycles because minerals may be used over and over
again y living things.
• It is a chemical cycle because chemical elements are the form that
we consider.
• It is bio because these are the cycles that involve life.
• It is geo because these cycles include atmosphere, water, rock, and
soils.
• These cycles are driven directly or indirectly by incoming solar
energy and gravity, include the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phos
phorus and other cycles.
Biogeochemical cycles and life
A Nutrient is a chemical species that actively taken up by
an organism and used to maintain its bodily functions.
These are known as the essential elements or
Bioelements. Till todate out of all known chemical
elements, only around 24 are required for life
purposes. Out of these 24 elements, which required at
a large quantity for life is known as Macronutrients,
while the others as Micronutrients.
Macronutrients are required in large amounts by all life.
Micronutrients are required in small amounts by all life
or in moderate amounts by some forms of life and not
others.
Essential Elements
• 24 elements are required for life
• Macronutrients are required in large quantities

– carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and
sulfur.
• Micronutrients are required in small/medium quantities,
or not at all for some organisms
– Copper, sodium, iodine
• These elements cycle in either a gas cycle or a
sedimentary cycle; some cycle as both a gas and
sediment.
Biogeochemical cycles(cont)
The macronutrients in turn in clued the “Big six”,
the elements that form the fundamental
building blocks of life. These are carbon (C),
oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), sulfur
(S), and phosphorus (P).
C= basic building block of organic compounds.
O+H+C=carbohydrate.
N+C+O+H= proteins.
P= energy element occurring in the compounds
called ATP and ADP.
Biogeochemical Cycle
• In a gas cycle elements move through the atmosphere.
Main reservoirs are the atmosphere and the ocean.
• In a sedimentary cycle elements move from land to

water to sediment. Main reservoirs are the soil and
sedimentary rocks.
Gas Cycles: Sedimentary Cycles:

Carbon Phosphorus
Nitrogen Sulfur
Oxygen & Hydrogen
Ecosystem cycles of a metal and a Nonmetal
• Elements have different pathway, such as pathway for

calcium (typical of a metal) or for sulfur (typical of a
nonmetallic element).
Calcium cycle
• Calcium does not form a gas on earth’s surface, and
therefore has no major phase in the atmosphere. It
occurs only as a compound in dust particles.
• Calcium, in its inorganic form, is highly soluble in water
and is readily lost from a land ecosystem in water
transport.
Ecosystem cycles of a metal and a Nonmetal (cont)
Sulfur cycle
• Sulfur forms various gases such as sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide. Therefore it has gas forms and it can
be returned to an ecosystem more rapidly than can
calcium.
• Annual input of sulfur from the atmosphere to a forest
ecosystem has been measured to be 10 times that of
calcium.
Therefore, the elements (i.e., calcium) that cannot
form the gas phase are the limiting factors.
How Are Human Activities Affecting the C-Cycle? we have
been intervening in the earth's carbon cycle in two ways
that add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere:
Clearing trees and other plants that absorb CO2 through
photosynthesis
Adding large amounts of COZ by burning fossil fuels and
wood.
Increased concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and other
gases we are adding to the atmosphere could enhance
the planet's natural greenhouse effect that helps warm
the lower atmosphere (The resulting global warming
could (1) disrupt global food production and wildlife
habitats and (2) raise the average sea level in various
parts of the world.
Human induced changes in the global carbon cycle
- The Earth is getting warmer.
- The 20th century was the warmest in the last 600 years.
- This century is about 1 degree Fahrenheit warmer than last

century.
- The balance of evidence suggests that burning of fossil fuel

(e.g. coal, oil, natural gas), which emits CO 2 as a waste, is
the cause.
- CO2 is a "Green House" gas - it traps heat at the Earth's

surface.
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is another important nutrient that all
organisms need.
• All living things need nitrogen to make proteins
including DNA.
• Almost 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen.
• However, neither plants nor animals can use
this form of nitrogen directly.
• Some use N in an organic form and others
(plants, algae, bacteria) can take up N either as
nitrate ions (NO3-), or the ammonium ions
(NH4+).
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle:
• Nitrogen fixation –conversion of gaseous nitrogen (by
Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and cyanobacteria) to ammonia (N2 +
3H2  2NH3) which can be used by plants.
• Nitrification - Two-step process in which ammonia is converted
first to NO2- (by Nitrosomonas) and then to NO3- (by Nitrobacter).
• Assimilation, in which plant roots absorb inorganic ammonia,
ammonium ions, and nitrate ions formed by nitrogen fixation and
nitrification in soil water.
• Denitrification – conversion of nitrate ions (by Pseudomonas or
other anaerobic bacteria in waterlogged soil or in the bottom
sediments of a water body) into nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous
oxide gas (N2O)
• Ammonification – the conversion (by decomposer heterotrophic
bacteria) of nitrogen-rich organic compounds, wastes, cast-off
particles, and dead bodies into available ammonia (which can be
used by plants).
Nitrogen
Several major steps of the nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen fixation, in which specialized bacteria convert gaseous

nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) that can be used by plants by
the reaction N2 + 3H2 --~ 2NH3. This is done mostly by (1)
cyanobacteria in soil and water and (2) Rhizobium bacteria
living in small nodules (swellings) on the root systems of a
wide variety of plant species, including soybeans and alfalfa.
Nitrification, a two-step process in which most of the ammonia
in soil is converted by specialized aerobic bacteria to (1)
nitrite ions (NO2-), which are toxic to plants and (2) nitrate
ions (N03-), which are easily taken up by plants as a nutrient.
Assimilation, in which plant roots absorb inorganic
ammonia, ammonium ions, and nitrate ions formed by
nitrogen fixation and nitrification in soil water. They
use these ions to make nitrogen-containing organic
molecules such as DNA, amino acids, and proteins.
Animals in turn get their nitrogen by eating plants or
plant-eating animals.
Denitrification, in which other specialized bacteria
(mostly anaerobic bacteria in water logged soil or in
the bottom sediments of lakes, oceans, swamps, and
bogs) convert NH3 and NH4+ back into nitrite (NO2-)
and nitrate (N03-) ions and then into nitrogen gas (N2)
and nitrous oxide gas (N20). These are then released to
the atmosphere to begin the cycle again.
Human Activities Affecting the Nitrogen
Cycle
• Mining N-containing mineral deposits-
removes N from the earth’s crust
• Removing N from topsoil by burning
grasslands and clearing forests before planting
crops
• Agricultural runoff and discharge of municipal
sewage- adds N compounds to aquatic
ecosystems
Human Intervention in N Cycle
 Burning of Fossil Fuels
• Burning any fuel (N2+O2=2NO) adds large amounts of
nitric oxide (NO) into the atmosphere.
• This NO then combines with oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide gas (NO2), which can react with water vapor to
form nitric acid (HNO3).
• Droplets of dissolved HNO3 in rain or snow are
components of acid deposition, commonly called acid
rain.
• Nitric acid, along with other pollutants, can damage and
weaken trees, upset aquatic ecosystems, corrode metals,
and damage marble, stone, and other building materials.
Human Intervention in N Cycle (cont)
 Agriculture
• Adding nitrogen compounds to aquatic ecosystems in
agricultural runoff and discharge of municipal sewage.
• This excess of plant nutrients stimulates rapid growth
of photosynthesizing algae and other aquatic plants.
• The subsequent breakdown of dead algae by aerobic
decomposers can deplete the dissolved oxygen of the
water and can disrupt aquatic ecosystems by killing
some types of fish and other oxygen requiring
organisms.
 Removing nitrogen from topsoil when we burn
grasslands and clear forests before planting crops.
 Removing nitrogen from the earth’s crust when we
mine nitrogen-containing mineral deposits. This
depletes nitrogen from topsoil by harvesting nitrogen
rich crops, and leaches water soluble nitrate ions
from soil through irrigation.
 Through the action of anaerobic bacteria on livestock
wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers applied to the
soil, the addition of nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas to the
atmosphere. When nitrous oxide reaches the stratosphere,
it also contributes to depletion of the earth’s ozone shield
that filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
 Accelerating the deposition of acidic nitrogen compounds
(such as NO2 and HNO3) from the atmosphere onto the
terrestrial ecosystems. This excessive input of nitrogen
can stimulate the growth of weedy plant species, which
can outgrow and perhaps eliminate other plant species
that cannot use nitrogen as well.
Group Discussion Topic
Identify two major environment and development

related problems of Bangladesh and develop
appropriate strategies to address those problems in
a sustainable way.

Introduction To Environmental Science Faculty: ARK: Lecture 1 &2 Issues and Values

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Introduction To Environmental Science Faculty: ARK: Lecture 1 &2 Issues and Values

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Summer 2019

Introduction to Environmental Science

b. the aggregate of social and cultural conditions

• Ecology (from the greek words oikos, "house" or "place to

• We depend on our environment for our different needs such as

• Humans and nature are closely connected. Our environment

• However, modern science and technology give us the power to

• These changes often result in negative impacts which in turn

Human change environment, often in ways not fully

Development means bettering peoples lives.

Gro Herlam Bruntland defined sustainable development as

Ref: Our Common Future“ (1987) by the World Commission on

Science and Values

• Nature is an aid to human creativity/inspiration

• Moral justification has to do with the belief that

Awareness of how people at a local level affect the environment

Introduction to Environmental Science

• The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet.

The hydrosphere consists of the earth's (1) liquid water

•The lithosphere is the earth's crust and upper mantle; the

The goal of ecology is to understand the

Life on the earth depends on three interconnected factor:

From a human standpoint, a resource is anything obtained

• Natural resources: Forrest, water, Land

Carrying capacity tells us that the biophysical limits of

The realization of difficulties in assessing the carrying

If you increase the number of people OR the

Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth’s

– The U.S. footprint is

• how sea area should be counted, how to account for fossil

Country Rank Co2 emission EF

Bangladesh 181 0.3 0.5

Netherlands 27 10.3 4.6

United Arab Emirates 2 32.8 10.3

Qatar 1 56.2 9.7

Go to the online footprint calculator

Name three actions that you would like to follow to reduce

– The perception of what constitutes a problem varies

• Expanded food production led to increased population

• It’s one of humanity’s greatest achievements, but at an

Each year, millions of people die from pollution

• The Earth’s surface is warming:

Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide

Biodiversity loss may be our biggest environmental problem; once a species is

Any addition to air, water, soil, or food that threatens the

Pollutants can enter the environment

The other types of pollutants are:

There are two classes of degradable pollutants:

Nonthreshold: harmful to a particular organism in any

What Types of Harm Do Pollutants Cause? Unwanted

(1) Pollution prevention or input pollution control reduces

Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy

•Should we continue to clear forests for the sake of human

We must develop solutions that protect both of our

• How can humans live within the planet’s means?

• Sustainable development: the use of resources to satisfy

Pollution cleanup Pollution prevention

Protecting species Protecting habitat

Increasing resource Less resource waste

Population growth Population stabilization

Environmental science, the study of the interactions among the

Environmental study is the systematic study of human interaction with

Habitat is a place where plants and