ENV 107

Introduction to Environmental Science

Faculty: ARK
Fall-2020

Lecture 5 & 6
Biogeochemical Cycles
 Geologic cycle
• Throughout the earth history, the materials on or near
the earth's surface have been created, maintained, and
destroyed by numerous physical, chemical, and
biochemical processes. Except during the early history of
our planet, the processes that produce the earth
materials necessary for our survival have periodically
reproduced new materials.
• Collectively, the processes are referred to as the
geologic cycle which is really a group of subcycles.
boundaries.
 Geologic cycle

The processes that are responsible for formation

of earth materials are referred to as the
geologic cycles. It’s a group of subcycles: 

• Tectonic cycle,
• Hydrologic cycle,
• Rock cycle, and
• Biogeochemical cycle.
Geologic cycle
 The Earth
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and
fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is
also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial
planets.
• Earth formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago by
accretion from the solar nebula, and life appeared on its
surface within one billion years. The planet is home to
millions of species, including humans.
• The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its
geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist.
The planet is expected to continue supporting life for
another 500 million to 2.3 billion years.
 The Earth
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and
fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is
also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial
planets.
• Earth formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago by
accretion from the solar nebula, and life appeared on its
surface within one billion years. The planet is home to
millions of species, including humans.
• The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its
geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist.
The planet is expected to continue supporting life for
another 500 million to 2.3 billion years.
The Structure of the Earth

Earth Interior
 Latitude and Longitude

Latitude and Longitude (Source: Studyzone)

• Lines of latitude are also called parallels, as they are "parallel" to

the equator
• Equator is the imaginary line that runs all the way around the
world, dividing it into two equal halves. It is in the exact middle of
the latitude lines
• Why do you think Latitude (distance from the equator) has an
influence on ecosystems?
The Structure of the Earth

Earth Interior
The Structure of the Earth

Earth Interior
Structure of The Earth
The Structure of the Earth
The Structure of the Earth
The Structure of the Earth

Earth Interior
 The Structure of the Earth
It can be divided into three parts, the core, mantle and
crust
The core: Can be divided into two parts, inner and outer
core. The inner core is 1200 km thick, the outer core
is 2270 km thick and is molten. Composed principally
of iron and nickel. The core gives us our magnetic
field, which may shield us from harmful radiation.
The mantle: 2885 km thick. Composed primarily of
olivine (Mg2SiO4). This can be divided into three
parts; the mesosphere (hot, but rigid, due to high
pressure), the 100-350 km asthenosphere (hot, weak
and plastic, like butter or tar) and the lithosphere
(cooler and rigid; brittle).
 The core:

The core: The core has 2 part. Outer core which is liquid and
Inner core which is solid.
• We know about these 2 layers from monitoring waves from
earthquakes (seismology).
The core is very dense compared to the other layers and
scientists have decided that it must have heavier metals
than the crust and mantle. The main elements found in the
core are Nickel and Iron.
• Both these metals are magnetic, which is why the Earth has
a magnetic field
• This is essential for Earth because the magnetic field stops
solar winds from the Sun which would otherwise destroy all
life on Earth
 The mantle
The mantle is about 2900km thick
It makes up about 66% of the total mass of the Earth
It is a layer of hot, partially molten rock
It is composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium and iron
The molten rock is known as magma and can be erupted in volcanic eruptions
Why is it important?
The tectonic plates move on the mantle due to convection currents
This causes:
Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Mountain formation
Ocean trench formation

A convection current is the circulation of a hot fluid (liquid or gas). It rises because it
is less dense and then as it cools it starts to sink again. This creates a circular
motion called a current.
 The crust:

The most important layer for us is the crust because we

live on top of it.
The crust is very thin compared to the other layers,
much like the shell of an egg or the skin of an apple.
Continental crust is thick (ranging from 20km to 75km). Oceanic
crust is thin (ranging from about 5km to 10km)
The crust floats on the top of the mantle.
What is it made from?
The crust is made up of different types of rocks - igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic
The main types of rock are silicates (silicates are made from
silicon, Si and oxygen, O)
 The crust:

The composition of the crust is quite different from the

whole earth. It is much more siliceous, consisting of
silicon, aluminum and lesser amounts of iron,
magnesium, calcium, potassium and sodium, balanced by
oxygen. The whole Earth contains much more iron. It is
composed of basalt rich oceanic crust and granitic rich
continental crust. The former is denser and rides lower on
the asthenosphere. Hence, the placement of the oceans.
• The lithosphere is brittle, consists of an upper mantle
region and all of the crust. It is only about 1/100 the
thickness of the Earth. The lithosphere floats on the
asthenosphere, which is the cause of earthquakes,
mountain building, etc.
 The Structure of the Earth

• Earth's oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick. The
continental crust is less dense, with lighter-colored rock, that varies from 30 to 70
kilometers thick. The continental crust is older and thicker than the oceanic crust.
 The Structure of the Earth

• Earth's oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick. The
continental crust is less dense, with lighter-colored rock, that varies from 30 to 70
kilometers thick. The continental crust is older and thicker than the oceanic crust.
 The Structure of the Earth

The oceanic crust is made of iron and magnesium silicates

Some common ones are called basalt and gabbro

The continental crust is made of potassium, aluminium and sodium silicates

A common continental rock is called granite

Granite: Pink granite - often used for kitchen benches Basaltic rock columns
 The Structure of the Earth
The crust is made of many types of rocks and hundreds of
minerals. These rocks and minerals are made from just 8
elements:
Oxygen (46.6%),
Silicon (27.72%),
Aluminum (8.13%),
Iron (5.00%),
Calcium (3.63%),
Sodium (2.83%),
Potassium (2.70%), and
Magnesium (2.09%).

The oceanic crust has more Silicon, Oxygen, and Magnesium. The
continental crust has more Silicon and Aluminum.
The Structure of the Earth
 Earth’s Landforms

Earth’s Landforms

Landforms are the shapes of

the land on Earth's
surface.
There are three basic
types: plains, plateaus,
and mountains.

Geomorphology is the
science that studies how
landforms are made.
 The Structure of the Earth
Planes: Plains are large, flat areas.
• Plains found near the ocean are called Coastal Plains.
• Plains found in the middle of a continent are called
Interior Plains.

Plateaus: Plateaus are flat, raised areas of land made of

horizontal rocks. The horizontal rocks were lifted up by
forces inside the Earth.

Mountains: Mountains are lands that rise high above the

surrounding land.
 Geologic cycle

The processes that are responsible for formation

of earth materials are referred to as the
geologic cycles. It’s a group of subcycles: 

• Tectonic cycle,
• Hydrologic cycle,
• Rock cycle, and
• Biogeochemical cycle.
 Tectonic cycle

Tectonic cycle involves creation and destruction of the solid outer layer
of Earth, known as the lithosphere.
Tectonic processes are driven by forces deep within the earth. They
deform the earth's crust, producing external forms such as ocean
basins, continents, and mountains. These processes are collectively
known as the tectonic cycle.
• A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαῖρα
[sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid,[outermost shell of a rocky planet,
and can be identified on the basis of its mechanical properties. On
Earth, it comprises the crust and the portion of the upper mantle
that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or
greater. The outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined
on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.
• The lithosphere is about 100 km (60 mi) thick on average and is
broken into several large segments called plates, which are moving
relative to one another.
 Tectonic cycle (Contd)

This cycle is driven by forces originating deep within

earth. The lithosphere is broken into at least twelve large
parts called plates that move relative to one another.
Plate tectonics is the slow movement of large segments of
earth’s outermost rock shell. These plates float on dense
material. lithosphere, it is not a continuous, uniform layer.
Rather, the lithosphere is broken into at least twelve large
parts called plates that move relative to one another.
As the lithospheric plates move over the asthenosphere,
which is thought to be a more or less continuous layer of
little strength below the lithosphere, the continents also
move. This moving of continents is called continental drift.
 Tectonic Plates

Just like this cracked eggshell below, the earth is made up

of around 40 pieces of broken crust. These are called
tectonic plates. Tectonic plates can be composed of both
oceanic and continental crust. There are thought to be
about 30 or 40 tectonic plates
The 7 major ones are under the main continents
 Tectonic Plates

Just like this cracked eggshell below, the earth is made up of around 40 pieces of
broken crust

eggshell
Current Plates of the World
 Tectonic cycle (Contd)

The boundaries between plates are geologically

active areas where most earthquakes and
volcanic activities occur. There are three
types of boundaries:
Divergent, Convergent, and Transform faults.
 Divergent plate boundary
It occurs at a spreading ocean ridge where
plates are moving away from one another
and new lithosphere is produced. This
process is known as seafloor spreading which
produces ocean basins.
Tectonic cycle
Tectonic cycle
Tectonic cycle (Contd)
Convergent plate boundary
• It occurs when plates collide. If one plate dives or
subducts beneath the leading edge of another, a
subduction zone is present and convergence may
produce linear mountain ranges (Andes in South
America). If two plates collide, a mountain range
such as Himalayas in Asia may form.
• Convergent boundaries (subduction zones) occur
when once platee dives beneath the leading edge
of another plate. This produces linear mountain
systems such as the Alps and the Himalayas.
Tectonic cycle contd
Convergent Plate Boundary
Convergent Plate Boundary
• Transform fault boundary
• Transform fault boundaries occur where one plate
slides past another, as, for example, the San
Andreas fault in California.
• Rates of plate motion relative to each other are
shown on Figure. In general the rates are about as
fast as your fingernails grow, but vary from about
2 to 15 centimeters per year.
Transform fault boundary
Plate tectonics has two kinds of important
environmental effects:
Physical:
changes in location and sizes of continents, alter
atmospheric and ocean circulation, and
Chemical:
• The materials of plates are subjected to heat and
pressure when the plates collide,
•  Altered in chemical form.
•   Materials are buried (including organic products
such as seashells).
•  Converted to limestone, and vegetation.
•   Converted to coal or natural gas
 The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle

• The rock cycle is an ongoing

process where rocks form and
change into other types of rocks.
Rocks are always changing.

• Minerals that make up rocks are

always being shifted around by
the environment. Some rocks
turn into entirely new rocks! The
rock cycle never stops!
 Rocks and Minerals

Minerals are natural, inorganic solids. Each mineral is

made of specific elements and has a specific crystal
structure. A mineral may be one element such as
copper (Cu) or gold (Au), or it may be a mixture of
several elements. About 2,500 different minerals have
been described.
Rocks are made of one or more minerals. Rocks are
aggregates of one or more minerals and the rock cycle
is the largest of the earth cycles.
There are three kinds of rocks:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic.
 The Rock cycle: Rocks and Minerals

Minerals are naturally occurring, solid, crystalline

substances with physical and chemical properties
that vary within known limits.
Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals and
the rock cycle is the largest of the earth cycles.
The rock cycle consists of several processes that
produce rocks and soils.
The rock cycle is a sequence of processes that
produces the three rock families: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. It depends on the
tectonic cycle for energy and on the hydrologic
cycle for water
The Rock Cycle
The Rock cycle
The Rock Cycle

17
Three classifications of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic. 
• Igneous: Internal heat from the tectonic cycle produces
ignenious rocks from molted material near the surface,
such as lava from volcanoes.
• Sedimentary: Weak acids dissolve some chemical
elements and compounds from the rocks. This process
of weathering produces sediments. The sediments are
transported by wind, water, or the movement of
glaciers.
• Metamorphic: After sedimentary rocks are buried to
sufficient depth, they may altered by heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids. They are then transformed to
metamorphic rocks.
 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks get their name from the Latin word ignis,
meaning "fire." Igneous rocks are made from lava or
magma. Lava and magma are made of hot, melted
minerals. Lava is found on or near the Earth's surface.
Magma is found far beneath the Earth's surface.

Extrusive igneous rocks are made from lava that cooled

quickly. Extrusive rocks generally have either no
crystals or very tiny crystals. Example: Pumice, basalt,
obsidian, scoria, rhyolite, andesite.

Intrusive igneous rocks are made from slow-cooling

magma. Intrusive rocks have large crystals.
Example: Granite, gabbro, diorite.
 Sedimentary Rocks
On Earth's surface, wind, ice, and water can break rock
into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another
place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop
from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can
be buried under other layers of sediments. Sometimes,
the sediments can even be made from seashells and
bodies of plants and animals. Fossils are found in
sedimentary rocks. After a long time the sediments can
be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In
this way, igneous rock can become sedimentary rock.

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks: sandstone, shale, siltstone,

conglomerate, coal
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: chemical limestone, halite
Organic Sedimentary Rocks: fossil-rich limestone,
coquina, coal
 Metamorphic Rocks

These rocks get their name from the Greek words Meta
and Morphe, meaning  'a change of form‘.
Metamorphic rocks are made from older rocks, either
igneous or sedimentary. These rocks are changed by
great heat and/or pressure deep beneath the earth's
surface. The heat and pressure makes crystals in the
rock. If the rock already has crystals, the heat makes
the crystals larger. Sometimes the pressure flattens the
crystals into layers.
Foliated metamorphic rocks have layers or bands of
crystals. (slate, gneiss)
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do not have layers or
bands of crystals. (marble, quartzite)
 The Hydrologic Cycle
Water Resources
• Water is essential for life and is the medium
in which all living processes (including
nutrient transportation, temperature
regulation, and waste disposal) occur.
• As far as we know, earth is the only place in
the universe where liquid water exists in
great quantities.
• Water covers about 70% of the earth's
surface.
 Hydrologic or Water cycle
The hydrologic cycle is the movement of water from
the oceans, to the atmosphere, and back to the
oceans, by way of precipitation, evaporation, stream
runoff, and groundwater flow. This cycle is driven by
solar energy.
The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle collects, purifies,
and distributes the earth's fixed supply of water.
The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and
by gravity. Incoming solar energy evaporates water
from oceans, streams, lakes, soil, and vegetation.
About 84% of water vapor in the atmosphere comes
from the oceans, and the rest comes from land.
Hydrologic or Water cycle
The main processes in this water recycling and purifying cycle
are
(1) Evaporation (conversion of water into water vapor),
(2) Transpiration (evaporation from leaves of water extracted
from soil by roots and trans­ported throughout the plant),
(3) Condensation (conver­sion of water vapor into droplets of
liquid water),
(4) Precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, and snow),
(5) Infiltration (movement of water into soil),
(6) Percolation (downward flow of water through soil and
permeable rock formations to groundwater storage areas
called aquifers), and
(7) Runoff (down slope surface movement back to the sea to
resume the cycle).
Hydrologic or Water cycle
• How Are Human Activities Affecting the Water Cycle?
• Withdrawing large quantities of fresh water from
streams, lakes, and underground sources. water
supplies.
• Clearing vegetation from land for agriculture, mining,
road and building construction, and other activities.
This (1) increases runoff, (2) reduces infiltration that
recharges groundwater supplies, (3) increases the risk
of flooding, and (4) accelerates soil erosion and
landslides.
• Modifying water quality by (1) adding nutrients (such
as phosphates and nitrates found in fertilizers)and
other pollutants and (2) changing ecological processes
that purify water naturally.
 Biogeochemical Cycles or nutrient cycles
•  The movement of nutrient elements through the
biosphere are called biogeochemical cycles.
• In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or
nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a chemical
element or molecule moves through both biotic
(biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere) compartments of Earth;
• As nutrients move through their biogeochemical
cycles, they may accumulate in certain portions of the
cycles and remain there for different periods of time.
These temporary storage sites such as the atmosphere,
the oceans and other bodies of water, and
underground deposits are called reservoirs.
 Nutrient Cycles and Life

Nutrient cycles connect past, present, and future

forms of life. Some of the carbon atoms in your
skin may once have been part of an oak leaf, a
dinosaur’s skin, or a layer of limestone rock.

People who lived 25,000 years ago may have inhaled

some of the nitrogen molecules you just inhaled.
 Nutrient Pools and Nutrient Flux

• Chemicals enter storage compartments – sinks

• Nutrient flux – the rate of exchange of nutrients

between pools. i.e. the amount of elements that
moves between compartments is the flux

• Nutrient pool – a specific component or

compartment where a nutrient resides; Can be
a single organism, a population, a community, a
trophic level, or an abiotic feature (e.g., lake,
soil, atmosphere, etc.);
D. T. Krohne, General Ecology
 Earth system

Earth is an assemblage of open systems, each dependent upon the others for
the whole earth “organism” to operate. However, compared to the
universe, it is almost a closed system. Other than meteors, rarely any mass
exchange use to take place.

However, It is actually this marvelous interactions – within the earth’s open

system – that create the unique environment in which life on earth can
prosper.

No other planet has this combination of systems to promote a congenial

environment for smooth growth of life.
 The Earth System
Sun

Atmosphere

Biosphere

Geosphere
Hydrosphere
 Components of Earth system
Atmosphere – The mixture of Gases that surrounds the earth.
Predominantly, nitrogen, Oxygen, carbondioxide, and water vapor.
Hydrosphere – All of earth’s water, including oceans, lakes, streams,
underground water, snow, and ice – excluding water vapor in the
atmosphere (considered as part of atmosphere)
Lithosphere (Geosphere)– The solid earth, principally composed of
rock and regolith ( the irregular blanket of loose, uncemented rock
particles).
Biosphere – all of the earth’s organisms, including both animal and
plant species.

* Presence of atmosphere and hydrosphere is the only property that

made our planet suitable for life, compared to other planets.
 Biogeochemical Cycles
• The nutrient atoms, ions, and molecules that organisms need to
live, grow, and reproduce are continuously cycled from the
nonliving environment (air, water, soil, and rock) to living
organisms (biota) and then back again in what are called nutrient
cycles, or biogeochemical cycles (literally, life-earth-chemical
cycles).
• They are called cycles because minerals may be used over and over
again y living things.
• It is a chemical cycle because chemical elements are the form that
we consider.
• It is bio because these are the cycles that involve life.
• It is geo because these cycles include atmosphere, water, rock, and
soils.
• These cycles are driven directly or indirectly by incoming solar
energy and gravity, include the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phos­
phorus and other cycles.
 Biogeochemical cycles and life
 A Nutrient is a chemical species that actively taken up by
an organism and used to maintain its bodily functions.
These are known as the essential elements or
Bioelements. Till todate out of all known chemical
elements, only around 24 are required for life
purposes. Out of these 24 elements, which required at
a large quantity for life is known as Macronutrients,
while the others as Micronutrients.
Macronutrients are required in large amounts by all life.
Micronutrients are required in small amounts by all life
or in moderate amounts by some forms of life and not
others.
 Essential Elements
• 24 elements are required for life

• Macronutrients are required in large quantities

– carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and
sulfur.
• Micronutrients are required in small/medium quantities,
or not at all for some organisms
– Copper, sodium, iodine
• These elements cycle in either a gas cycle or a
sedimentary cycle; some cycle as both a gas and
sediment.
 Biogeochemical cycles(cont)
The macronutrients in turn in clued the “Big six”,
the elements that form the fundamental
building blocks of life. These are carbon (C),
oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), sulfur
(S), and phosphorus (P).
C= basic building block of organic compounds.
O+H+C=carbohydrate.
N+C+O+H= proteins.
P= energy element occurring in the compounds
called ATP and ADP.
 Biogeochemical Cycle
• In a gas cycle elements move through the atmosphere.
Main reservoirs are the atmosphere and the ocean.

• In a sedimentary cycle elements move from land to

water to sediment. Main reservoirs are the soil and
sedimentary rocks.

Gas Cycles:                               Sedimentary Cycles:

Carbon                                                Phosphorus
Nitrogen                                              Sulfur
Oxygen & Hydrogen  
 Ecosystem cycles of a metal and a Nonmetal

• Elements have different pathway, such as pathway for

calcium (typical of a metal) or for sulfur (typical of a
nonmetallic element).
Calcium cycle
• Calcium does not form a gas on earth’s surface, and
therefore has no major phase in the atmosphere. It
occurs only as a compound in dust particles.
• Calcium, in its inorganic form, is highly soluble in water
and is readily lost from a land ecosystem in water
transport.
 Ecosystem cycles of a metal and a Nonmetal (cont)
Sulfur cycle
• Sulfur forms various gases such as sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide. Therefore it has gas forms and it can
be returned to an ecosystem more rapidly than can
calcium.
• Annual input of sulfur from the atmosphere to a forest
ecosystem has been measured to be 10 times that of
calcium.
Therefore, the elements (i.e., calcium) that cannot
form the gas phase are the limiting factors.
How Are Human Activities Affecting the C-Cycle? we have
been intervening in the earth's carbon cycle in two ways
that add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere:
Clearing trees and other plants that absorb CO2 through
photosynthesis
Adding large amounts of COZ by burning fossil fuels and
wood.
Increased concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and other
gases we are adding to the atmosphere could enhance
the planet's natural greenhouse effect that helps warm
the lower atmosphere (The resulting global warming
could (1) disrupt global food production and wildlife
habitats and (2) raise the average sea level in various
parts of the world.
Human induced changes in the global carbon cycle
- The Earth is getting warmer.

- The 20th century was the warmest in the last 600 years.

- This century is about 1 degree Fahrenheit warmer than last

century.

- The balance of evidence suggests that burning of fossil fuel

(e.g. coal, oil, natural gas), which emits CO 2 as a waste, is
the cause.

- CO2 is a "Green House" gas - it traps heat at the Earth's

surface.
 Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is another important nutrient that all
organisms need.
• All living things need nitrogen to make proteins
including DNA.
• Almost 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen.
• However, neither plants nor animals can use
this form of nitrogen directly.
• Some use N in an organic form and others
(plants, algae, bacteria) can take up N either as
nitrate ions (NO3-), or the ammonium ions
(NH4+).
Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle:
• Nitrogen fixation –conversion of gaseous nitrogen (by
Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and cyanobacteria) to ammonia (N2 +
3H2  2NH3) which can be used by plants.
• Nitrification - Two-step process in which ammonia is converted
first to NO2- (by Nitrosomonas) and then to NO3- (by Nitrobacter).
• Assimilation, in which plant roots absorb inorganic ammonia,
ammonium ions, and nitrate ions formed by nitrogen fixation and
nitrification in soil water.
• Denitrification – conversion of nitrate ions (by Pseudomonas or
other anaerobic bacteria in waterlogged soil or in the bottom
sediments of a water body) into nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous
oxide gas (N2O)
• Ammonification – the conversion (by decomposer heterotrophic
bacteria) of nitrogen-rich organic compounds, wastes, cast-off
particles, and dead bodies into available ammonia (which can be
used by plants).
 Nitrogen

Several major steps of the nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen fixation, in which specialized bacteria convert gaseous

nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) that can be used by plants by
the reaction N2 + 3H2 --~ 2NH3. This is done mostly by (1)
cyanobacteria in soil and water and (2) Rhizobium bacteria
living in small nodules (swellings) on the root systems of a
wide variety of plant species, including soybeans and alfalfa.
Nitrification, a two-step process in which most of the ammonia
in soil is converted by specialized aero­bic bacteria to (1)
nitrite ions (NO2-), which are toxic to plants and (2) nitrate
ions (N03-), which are easily taken up by plants as a nutrient.
Assimilation, in which plant roots absorb inorganic
ammonia, ammonium ions, and nitrate ions formed by
nitrogen fixation and nitrification in soil water. They
use these ions to make nitrogen-containing organic
molecules such as DNA, amino acids, and proteins.
Animals in turn get their nitrogen by eating plants or
plant-eating animals.
Denitrification, in which other specialized bacteria
(mostly anaerobic bacteria in water logged soil or in
the bottom sediments of lakes, oceans, swamps, and
bogs) convert NH3 and NH4+ back into nitrite (NO2-)
and nitrate (N03-) ions and then into nitro­gen gas (N2)
and nitrous oxide gas (N20). These are then released to
the atmosphere to begin the cycle again.
 Human Activities Affecting the Nitrogen
Cycle
• Mining N-containing mineral deposits-
removes N from the earth’s crust
• Removing N from topsoil by burning
grasslands and clearing forests before planting
crops
• Agricultural runoff and discharge of municipal
sewage- adds N compounds to aquatic
ecosystems
 Human Intervention in N Cycle
 Burning of Fossil Fuels
• Burning any fuel (N2+O2=2NO) adds large amounts of
nitric oxide (NO) into the atmosphere.
• This NO then combines with oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide gas (NO2), which can react with water vapor to
form nitric acid (HNO3).
• Droplets of dissolved HNO3 in rain or snow are
components of acid deposition, commonly called acid
rain.
• Nitric acid, along with other pollutants, can damage and
weaken trees, upset aquatic ecosystems, corrode metals,
and damage marble, stone, and other building materials.
 Human Intervention in N Cycle (cont)
 Agriculture
• Adding nitrogen compounds to aquatic ecosystems in
agricultural runoff and discharge of municipal sewage.
• This excess of plant nutrients stimulates rapid growth
of photosynthesizing algae and other aquatic plants.
• The subsequent breakdown of dead algae by aerobic
decomposers can deplete the dissolved oxygen of the
water and can disrupt aquatic ecosystems by killing
some types of fish and other oxygen requiring
organisms.
 Human Intervention in N Cycle (cont)
 Removing nitrogen from topsoil when we burn
grasslands and clear forests before planting crops.
 Removing nitrogen from the earth’s crust when we
mine nitrogen-containing mineral deposits. This
depletes nitrogen from topsoil by harvesting nitrogen
rich crops, and leaches water soluble nitrate ions
from soil through irrigation.
 Human Intervention in N Cycle (cont)
 Through the action of anaerobic bacteria on livestock
wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers applied to the
soil, the addition of nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas to the
atmosphere. When nitrous oxide reaches the stratosphere,
it also contributes to depletion of the earth’s ozone shield
that filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
 Accelerating the deposition of acidic nitrogen compounds
(such as NO2 and HNO3) from the atmosphere onto the
terrestrial ecosystems. This excessive input of nitrogen
can stimulate the growth of weedy plant species, which
can outgrow and perhaps eliminate other plant species
that cannot use nitrogen as well.
 Group Discussion Topic

Identify two major environment and development

related problems of Bangladesh and develop
appropriate strategies to address those problems in
a sustainable way.