Quantitative research design and

Sampling methodologies
 Research Design
• “Research design is a master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collection and
analyzing the needed information.”
William Zikmund
• “Research design is the plan, structure and
strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance.”
Kerlinger
 Quantitative Research Design
• Exploratory
– Investigates issues with the goal of providing insight and
information to the researcher
– Use pilot studies to test feasibility or value of working in
an area; focus groups to guide survey design
• Description
– Describe the current situation or classify situations,
events or groups.
– Often use large scale data sets
– Surveys; correlational studies
 Quantitative Research Design
• Explanation
– Build, enrich and explain theories
– Test theories using quantitative methods
• Prediction
– Establish predictors of some behavior
– Two types of variables – predictor and criterion (outcome)
– Regression analysis is one statistical procedure used for
prediction
• Evaluation
– Evaluates programs for their efficacy
– Come in different forms and serve different functions
 Quantitative Research Design
• Survey Research
– Collect quantitative data to address questions about
the current state of a population or phenomena.
– Can address preferences, attitudes, opinions,
concerns, interests
• Correlational Research
– Determines if a relationship exists between two
quantitative variables
– Measure the strength of the relaitonship
 Quantitative Research Design
• Causal-Comparative Research
– Establish a cause, or reason, for a behavior or other
phenomena after the event, or cause, has already occurred.
– Involves an independent-dependent variable relationship.
• Experimental Research
– A collection of research designs that uses one or more
variables that are manipulated to understand the effect on
a dependent variable.
– Allows for control of variables not relevant to the research.
 Experimental Design
• Preexperimental designs are focused on
studying a single group that is given the
experimental intervention (experimental groups
only).
• True experimental designs (also called classical
experiments) are based on randomization.
• Quasi- experimental designs involve taking
advantage of natural settings or groups, and
thus subjects are not randomly assigned
 Definition
• Population – a population is the set of all the individuals or objects
which have a given characteristic, e.g. the set of all persons eligible to
vote in a given country.
• Sample – a sample is a subset of a population e.g. the voters selected
for questioning about their views.
• Sampling – sampling is the process of taking a sample.
• Sample Survey – the process of collecting the data from a sample is
called a sample survey, e.g. asking the selected voters their political
views is a sample survey.
• Census - the process of collecting data from a whole population is called
a census, e.g. a population census in which data about the entire
population of a country is collected. (Note that the ten-yearly
population census taken in the UK is one of the few questionnaires that
the head of a household is compelled by law to complete.)
 Reasons for Sampling
(a)Cost
(b)Easy Control
(c)Speed
(d)Quality – fewer respondents, lesser efforts, more focused
(e)Accuracy
(f)Industrial Application
• For example, in a tyre factory each tyre will be required
to have a minimum safe life in terms of distance driven
and to withstand a minimum pressure without a
blowout.
 Sampling
• Once you have decided to carry out a sample
survey, there are various decisions which must
be made before you can start collecting the
information. These are:
– procedure for selecting the sample
– size of the sample
– elimination of bias
– method of taking the sample.
 Sampling Methods
Probability and Non­Probability Sampling
 
The final decision you have to make is about the method to use to select the
sample.
 
The choice will depend on the:
– aim of the survey
– type of population involved, and
– time and funds at your disposal.
• An important distinction is made between probability and non­probability
sampling.
• In probability sampling, every item in the population has a known chance of
being selected as a sample member.
• In non­probability sampling, the probability that any item in the population will
be selected for the sample cannot be determined.
 Sampling Methods
The methods from which the choice of sampling is usually made are listed
below:

Probability sampling:
• simple random sampling
• systematic sampling
• stratified sampling
• multistage sampling
• cluster sampling.
Non­probability sampling:
• quota sampling
• judgemental sampling
• snowball sampling
• convenience sampling.
 Simple Random Sampling
The dictionary definition of random is
“haphazard” or “without aim or purpose”, but
the statistical definition is:
A process by which every available item has an equal
change of being chosen.
So, simple random sampling is probability
sampling in which every member of the
population has an equal probability of being
selected.
 Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling (sometimes called quasi­random
sampling) is another probability sampling method. It
involves the selection of a certain proportion of the
total population.
• Drawing a simple random sample as described above
can be very time­consuming.
• The systematic sampling method simplifies the
process. First you decide the size of the sample and
then divide it into the population to calculate the
proportion of the population you require.
 Stratified Sampling
• Before we discuss this method of sampling,
we have to define two different types of
population.
– Homogeneous population: sampling units are all
the same kind and can reasonably be dealt with
one group.
– Heterogeneous population: sampling units are
different from one another and should be place
inseveral separate groups.
 Stratified Sampling
• In the sampling methods already discussed, populations are assumed as being
homogeneous.
• However, in the business and social surveys, the populations are very often
heterogeneous.
• e.g. in the bank survey, the bank customers may have interests in different
areas of banking activities.
• If this feature of the population is ignored, the sample chosen will not give a
true cross section of the population.
• This problem is overcome by using stratified sampling. The population is
divided into groups or strata, according to the characteristics of the different
sections of the population, and a simple random sample is taken from each
stratum.
• The sum of these samples is equal to the size of the sample required, and the
individual sizes are proportional to the sizes of the strata in the population.
 Sampling Methods
• Multistage Sampling
– This “probability sampling” method consists of a
number of stages and is designed to retain the
advantage of simple random sampling and at the
same time cut down the cost of the sample.
• Cluster Sampling
– The method consists of dividing the sampling area
into a number of small concentrations or clusters of
sampling units. Some of these clusters are chosen at
random, and every unit in the cluster is sampled.
 Sampling Methods
• Quota Sampling
– Sampling frame and a list of sampling units is not necessary. This is
an example of a non-probability sampling method, because it is not
possible to determine the probability that any individual member of
the population will be included in the sample. The basic difference
between this method and other methods is that the final choice of
the sampling units is left to the sampler in person.
• Judgmental Sampling
– Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which
the research uses his or her judgment to choose appropriate
members of the population for the sample. Often, the sample
members are selected because they are thought to be experts in the
field who can provide useful information on the research topic.
 Sampling Methods
• Snowball Sampling
– Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method in
which a small sample is first selected (using, for example,
either random or judgmental sampling) and then each sample
member is asked to pass on a questionnaire to acquaintances.
In this way, a much larger sample can be obtained.
• Convenience Sampling
– Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method in
which the sample members are selected because of their
availability and willingness to participate. For example, student
researchers, who are collecting primary data for a dissertation,
may collect data from their fellow students. Such samples are
unlikely to be representative of the entire population.
 Choice of sampling method
• After all the preliminary steps for a survey have been taken, there may be a
need for a trial run before the full survey.
• This trial run is called a pilot survey and will be carried out by sampling
only a small proportion of the sample which will be used in the final survey.
• The analyzed results of this pilot survey will enable to pick out the
weaknesses in the questionnaire design, the training of the interviewers,
the sampling frame and the method of sampling.
• The sampling method is probably the factor which has most effect on the
quality of survey results so it needs very careful thought.
• The advantages and disadvantages of each method for each survey must
be identified to select the sampling method.
• When the aim of the survey has been defined, the type of population
involved, the sampling frame available and the area covered by the
population must be considered.