Chapter 3-Part 2

INVERTERS

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
INVERTERS

 PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATED OUTPUT
 PWM DEFINITIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS
 PWM HARMONICS
 THREE-PHASE INVERTERS

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 INVERTER:
PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATED OUTPUT

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) provides a way to decrease the total harmonic

distortion of load current.

Control of the switches for sinusoidal PWM output requires:

(1)reference signal - sometimes called a modulating or control signal, which is a

sinusoid in this case

(2)carrier signal - which is a triangular wave that controls the switching frequency.
 INVERTER:
PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATED OUTPUT

Bipolar switching:

When the instantaneous value of the sine

reference is larger than the triangular carrier,
the output is at +Vdc, and when the reference is
less than the carrier, the output is at -Vdc:

Figure 8-17 Bipolar pulse-width modulation. (a) Sinusoidal

reference and triangular carrier; (b) Output is +Vdc when vsine >
vtri and is -Vdc when vsine < vtri.
 INVERTER:
PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATED OUTPUT

Figure 8-1

The switching scheme that will implement

bipolar switching using the full-bridge
inverter of Fig. 8-1 is determined by
comparing the instantaneous reference and
carrier signals:
 INVERTER:
PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATED OUTPUT

Unipolar switching:

Figure 8-18 (a) Full-bridge converter for unipolar PWM; (b)

Reference and carrier signals; (c) Bridge voltages va and vb; (d)
Output voltage.
 INVERTER:
PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATED OUTPUT

Unipolar switching:
• In a unipolar switching scheme for pulse-width modulation, the output is
switched either from high to zero or from low to zero, rather than between
high and low as in bipolar switching. One unipolar switching scheme has
switch controls in Fig. 8-1 as follows:

• Note that switch pairs (S1, S4) and (S2, S3) are complementary—when
one switch in a pair is closed, the other is open. The voltages va and vb in
Fig. 8-18a alternate between +Vdc and zero. The output voltage vo = vab
va - vb is as shown in Fig. 8-18d.
 INVERTER:
PWM DEFINITIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS

1. Frequency modulation ratio mf

2. Amplitude modulation ratio ma

If ma  1, the amplitude of the fundamental frequency of the output voltage V1 is

linearly proportional to ma.

3. Switches

4. Reference voltage.
 INVERTER:
PWM HARMONICS
Bipolar Switching: Unipolar Switching:

Figure 8-21 Frequency spectrum for bipolar PWM with ma=1. Figure 8-22 Frequency spectrum for unipolar PWM with ma=1.
Example 8.8

The full-bridge inverter is used to produce a 60-Hz voltage across a series RL

load using bipolar PWM. The DC input to the bridge is 100 V, the amplitude
modulation ratio ma is 0.8, and the frequency modulation ratio mf is 21 [ftri =
(21)(60) =1260 Hz]. The load has a resistance of R=10 and series
inductance L= 20 mH. Determine:
(a) the amplitude of the 60-Hz component of the output voltage and load
current,
(b) the power absorbed by the load resistor, and
(c) the THD of the load current.
Example 8.9

Design a bipolar PWM inverter that will produce a 75-V rms 60-Hz output
from a 150-V DC source. The load is a series RL combination with R=12
and L=60 mH. Select the switching frequency such that the current THD is
less than 10 percent.
 INVERTER:
THREE-PHASE INVERTER
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1

0 2 2 2 T

3 3 3

4 4 4

5 5 5

R R R 6 6 6

Figure 8-28 (a) Three-phase inverter; (b) Switching sequence

for six-step output; (c) Line-to-line output voltages; (d ) Line-
to-neutral voltages for an ungrounded Y- connected load;
(e) Current in phase A for an RL load.
 INVERTER:
THREE-PHASE INVERTER
1 2 3 4 5 6

R R R

Figure 8-28 (a) Three-phase inverter; (b) Switching sequence

for six-step output; (c) Line-to-line output voltages; (d ) Line-
to-neutral voltages for an ungrounded Y- connected load;
(e) Current in phase A for an RL load.
 INVERTER:
THREE-PHASE INVERTER

• Figure 8-28a shows a circuit that produces a three-phase AC output from a

DC input. A major application of this circuit is speed control of induction
motors, where the output frequency is varied. The switches are closed and
opened in the sequence shown in Fig. 8-28b.

• Each switch has a duty ratio of 50 percent, and a switching action takes place
every T/6 time interval, or 60 angle interval.

• Note that switches S1 and S4 close and open opposite of each other, as do
switch pairs (S2, S5) and (S3, S6). As with the single-phase inverter, these
switch pairs must coordinate so they are not closed at the same time, which
would result in a short circuit across the source.

• With this scheme, line-to-line output voltages vAB, vBC, and VCA are +Vdc, 0, or
-Vdc. The switching sequence in Fig. 8-28b produces the output voltages
shown in Fig. 8-28c.
 INVERTER:
THREE-PHASE INVERTER
• The three-phase load connected to this output voltage may be connected in
delta or ungrounded neutral wye.

• For a wye-connected load, which is the more common load connection, the
voltage across each phase of the load is a line-to-neutral voltage, shown in
Fig. 8-28d.

• Because of the six steps in the output waveforms for the line-to-neutral
voltage resulting from the six switching transitions per period, this circuit
with this switching scheme is called a six-step inverter.

• The Fourier series for the output voltage has a fundamental frequency equal
to the switching frequency. Harmonic frequencies are of order 6k ± 1 for k =
1, 2, . . . (n 5, 7, 11, 13 . . .). The third harmonic and multiples of the third do
not exist, and even harmonics do not exist.
 INVERTER:
THREE-PHASE INVERTER
• For an input voltage of Vdc, the output for an ungrounded wye-connected
load has the following Fourier coefficients:

• The output frequency can be controlled by changing the switching frequency.

The magnitude of the output voltage depends on the value of the dc supply
voltage. To control the output voltage of the six-step inverter, the dc input
voltage must be adjusted.
Example 8.12

For the six-step three-phase inverter of Fig. 8-28a, the DC input is 100 V and
the fundamental output frequency is 60 Hz. The load is wye-connected with
each phase of the load a series RL connection with R=10  and L=20 mH.
Determine the total harmonic distortion of the load current.
 INVERTER:
PWM THREE-PHASE INVERTER
• As in the case of the six-step three-phase inverter, switches in Fig. 8-28a are
controlled in pairs (S1, S4), (S2, S5), and (S3, S6). When one switch in a pair
is closed, the other is open.

• Each pair of switches requires a separate sinusoidal reference wave.

• The three reference sinusoids are 120 apart to produce a balanced three
phase output. Figure 8-29a shows a triangular carrier and the three reference
waves. Switch controls are such that:

Figure 8-28
 INVERTER:
PWM THREE-PHASE INVERTER

Figure 8-29 (a) Carrier and reference

waves for PWM operation with mf= 9
and ma= 0.7 for the three-phase inverter
of Fig. 8-28a; (b) Output waveforms-
current is for an RL load.
SUMMARY