Chapter 2:

Ethical Theories

Utilitarianism, Kantianism &

Virtue Ethics
Dr. Noorunnisa Khan

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2.1 Kantian Ethics

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Critical Importance of Good Will

• Good will is an intrinsic good (good in itself)

• Good will: the desire to do the right thing
• Good will= dutifulness (sense of duty)
• Reason should cultivate desire to do right thing

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Duty-based Ethics

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 Imperatives (Duties)

Hypothetical Imperatives Categorical Imperatives

Conditional Obligations Unconditional/Absolute

Obligations

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Categorical Imperative (1st Formulation)

Act only from moral rules that you can at

the same time will to be universal moral
laws.

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 Illustration of 1st Formulation
• Question: Can a person in dire straits make a promise
with the intention of breaking it later?
• Proposed rule: “I may make promises with the
intention of later breaking them.”
• The person in trouble wants his promise to be believed
so he can get what he needs.
• Universalize rule: Everyone may make & break
promises
• Everyone breaking promises would make promises
unbelievable, contradicting desire to have promise
believed
• The rule is flawed. The answer is “No.”
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A Quick Check

• When evaluating a proposed action, reverse

roles

• What would you think if that person did the

same thing to you?

• Negative reaction → evidence that your will

to do that action violates the Categorical
Imperative

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Categorical Imperative (2nd Formulation)

Act so that you treat both yourself

and other people as ends in themselves
and never only as a means to an end.

This is usually an easier formulation to work

with than the first formulation of the
Categorical Imperative

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Kant: Wrong to Use Another Person
Solely as a Means to an End

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Plagiarism Scenario

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Kantian Evaluation(1st Formulation)

• Carla wants credit for plagiarized report

• Rule: “You may claim credit for work
performed by someone else”
• If rule universalized, reports would no longer
be credible indicator’s of student’s knowledge,
and professors would not give credit for
reports
• Proposal moral rule is self-defeating
• It is wrong for Carla to turn in a purchased
report
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Kantian Evaluation(2ndFormulation)

• Carla submitted another person’s work as her

own
• She attempted to deceive professor
• She treated professor as a means to an end
– End: passing the course
– Means: manipulate professor
• What Carla did was wrong

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Case for Kantianism

• Aligns with common moral concern: “What if

everyone acted that way?”
• Produces universal moral guidelines
• Treats all persons as moral equals

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Case Against Kantianism

• Too Rigid
• No consideration for Good emotion
• No consideration for consequences
• Does not help when two or more duties come
into conflict

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2.2 Utilitarianism

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Trolley Problem

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 Principle of Utility

• Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

• An action is good if its benefits exceeds its harms
• An action is bad if its harms exceed its benefits
• Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness
or prevent unhappiness for an individual or a
community
• Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure
• Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain

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Utility Principle
(Greatest Happiness Principle)

An action is right (or wrong) to the extent

that it increases (or decreases) the
total happiness of the affected parties.

Maximum pleasure for maximum number

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Utility Principle

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Act Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism
– Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent
– Focuses on the consequences
– A consequentialist theory
Act utilitarianism
– Add up change in happiness of all affected beings
– Sum > 0, action is good
– Sum < 0, action is bad
– Right action to take: one that maximizes the sum
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Rule Utilitarianism

• We ought to adopt moral rules which, if

followed by everyone, will lead to the
greatest increase in total happiness
• Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to
individual actions
• Rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility
to moral rules

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Case for Utilitarianism

• Focuses on happiness
• Down-to-earth (practical)
• Comprehensive

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 Case against Utilitarianism

• Difficulties of calculation
• Problem Cases

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Fat man problem:
(Another version of Trolley problem)

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2.3 Virtue Ethics

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 Virtue Ethics
• Living a good life by cultivating an excellent
(virtuous) character….

• No focus on particular principles or their

consequences

• How should I live? Or What sort of person I

should be???

• What are the traits of character that make a

person a morally good human being?

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What is Good Life?

Is there a “good life” to which all

humans should aspire?

A life of balance, fullness, and

happiness. ( Aristotle).
Art of Leading a good life is experiencing
appropriate emotions ( Aristotle).
Cultivating the virtues is the way to flourish
as a human being. ( Aristotle)

What is Virtue?

The moral qualities of humans such as :

Truth, Self Control, Empathy, Fairness,
Truthfulness, Learning, Gratitude, Civility,
moral Leadership
Virtue Theory Claims….

• We should exercise, exhibit, and develop

the virtues

• We should avoid exercising, exhibiting, and

developing vices

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Case against Virtue Theory

• Which virtues should be adopted?

• Human nature

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Overview of Ethical Theories
Person Motive Action Consequences

Focus on the Focus on the Focus on actions Focus on the

person motives confirming conforming to Consequences of the
to certain rules certain rules actions
Virtue Ethics Deontological Theories Consequentialist
Theories
Roles Rules Goals
Prioritizes what’s Prioritizes what’s right Prioritizes what’s
virtuous good
Agent - centred Action- centred

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Application of theories

• Case of Euthanasia

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