DEONTOLOGICAL

Theory
Aristotle
(384–322 B.C.E.)

Immanuel Kant
(1724–1804)
Aristotelian Ethical Principle:
 Is grounded on Metaphysics, like that of
Plato
Metaphysics – a branch of philosophy
dealing with the problem of existence
Metaphysical Doctrine
 Aristotle disagrees with Plato (especially his belief in
the World of Ideas)
 For Aristotle, the World of Ideas does not exist
 The real world is not up there, but in this material
world
 The material is real –truly, really existing
 Hylemorphism
 Each material thing/object is real (truly, really
existing), since each thing/object is a composite of
matter and form (hylemorphism)
 Nothing exists unless it is composite of matter and
form
Form

Thing/object

Matter
Form
(soul)

Man
Matter
(body)
Form
(soul)

Man Essence
Matter
(body)
Aristotle’s definition of essence:
1. The subject to which attributes are predicated
2. That which remains the same throughout the
process of change
 The Essence as the Final End (Purpose)
 The essence (or substance) of everything that is
composed of matter and form defines its final
end (purpose)
If a chair is created as such, it must have its final
purpose, in its essence, why it is created as such
If it doesn’t have any purpose why it is created
as such, then it must have been created otherwise
(or other than a chair).
 What is the ESSENCE of Man?

REASON
 Man is his reason
 Man is a rational animal
 Reason is what makes man different from animals
 Reason is also his final purpose why he exists.
 The very purpose of man’s existence
is for him to become a man of
reason.
 There is no other purpose of man on
earth, except to become a man of
reason
 HOW?
 How could he be a man of reason?
As rational, man has to do
actions:

1.To the right person,

2.At the right time,
3.At the right place,
4.At the right
circumstance;
5.At the right disposition
 Man’s Purpose:
 As mentioned, there’s no other purpose of man on earth,
except to be a man of REASON
 For Aristotle, there is no heaven, no World of
Ideas, no paradise as man’s final destiny
 But, his purpose is to become what is meant to
be –a RATIONAL human being
Man’s Ultimate Happiness:
 Is not attained in heaven, nor in the World of Ideas
 But, happiness is attained in doing the right thing to do.

Eudaimonia
(happiness)
Immanuel Kant
1724–1804
 Life
 was born April 22, 1724 in Königsberg,
 His father: a master harness maker
 His mother: the daughter of a harness maker
 Kant attended college at the University of
Königsberg (Albertina)
 After college, he spent 6 years as a private tutor
to young children outside Königsberg
 In 1754, he returned to Königsberg and began
teaching at the Albertina the following year
 For the next 4 decades, he taught philosophy
there, until his retirement from teaching in 1796
at the age of 72.
 Literary Works:
 1781 – Critique of Pure Reason
 1785 – Groundwork of the Metaphysics of
Morals
 1788 – Critique of Practical Reason
“Nothing in the world—or out of it!—can
possibly be conceived that could be called
‘good’ without qualification except a
GOOD WILL.”

--Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

 ETHICAL
 PRINCIPLES
Kant’s ethical principles are anchored on
Epistemology (a branch of philosophy dealing
with the problem of knowledge)
Ex. Where does idea come from? (For example:
idea of color, idea of the good)
 This epistemological problem (of knowledge or
of the good) creates two main division of
philosophers: (1) rationalists and (2) empiricists
Rationalist – believes that real knowledge comes
from reason alone (propounded by Rene
Descartes)
Empiricist – believes that real knowledge comes
from experience alone (propounded by John
Locke, David Hume)
 For the rationalist, “idea” is a priori (prior to
experience)
Thus, judgment is analytic (for example: The
bachelor is an unmarried man.)
 For the empiricist, “idea” is a posteriori (after
experience)
Thus, judgment is synthetic (for example, the
table is red.)
 Kant’s Position
 It is possible to have an “idea” or a real
knowledge, which is both synthetic a priori
 But, moral knowledge (for ex. Thou shall not
kill) is always a priori
Meaning the knowledge of the good is always
prior to experience
 Kant’s argument
 First, we are all rational. As rational beings, we are
self-legislating subjects.
 As rational beings, we are endowed with “good
will”
 As man of “good will,” we act/do actions
according to our own maxim (self-maxim)
Maxim (the highest possible good)
“Nothing in the world—or out of it!—can
possibly be conceived that could be called
‘good’ without qualification except a
GOOD WILL.”

--Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

 2 types of goods:
1.Good-in-itself – is good without qualifications
Its goodness does not depend on the consequences
of its action
2.Good-for-itself – is good only for a certain
purpose (For example, a knife is only good for
cutting)
 For Kant, the man of “good will” follows his will to do
good, or according to his self-maxim (the highest
possible good)
 For example, helping a mother
For Kant, the man of “good will” helps the mother
because that’s the good thing to do (what his self-maxim
dictates)
Thus, making his action good without qualification
because he does it without other reason, except it’s the
right thing to do.
 Now if you happen to help the mother because
you want to gain a favour from her because of
her beautiful daughter, then it is no longer done
by “good will.”
 It is, however, done out of your self-inclination.
 Your will to do good –that is, to help for sake of
helping, is weakened because of your self-
inclination.
 Yet, the fact remains that “good will” is good
without qualifications (good –because it has
no conditions)
 Categorical Imperatives
1. I ought never to act in such a way that I couldn’t also will
that the maxim on which I act should be a universal law
2. Act in such a way as to treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in that of anyone else, always as an end and never
merely as a means.
3. Act according to maxims of a universally legislating
member of a merely possible kingdom of ends.