CHAPTER ONE

ELEMENTS OF DAM
ENGINEERING

Hydraulic structures
A dam may be defined as an obstruction across a river. Through the obstruction, storage
is formed, which an be utilized for various uses.
The retained body of water is referred as a reservoir, and the retaining structure is
the dam.

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Earth fill Dam
Rock fill Dam

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 Concrete Gravity Dam

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Itapu Dam, Brazil, Uragay

Concrete Gravity Dam

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Concrete Gravity Dam

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Single Arch Dam

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Single Arch Dam

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Single Arch Dam

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Multiple Arch Dam

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 Roselende Dam

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Buttress Dam
 Purposes
Dams are very expensive structures:
 Grand Renaissance Dam: Euro 4.8 bn
 Gilgel Gibe III: Euro 1.55 bn
The functions of dams and reservoirs include
Storage

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 Water supply
 Gefersa, Legedadi,Maqa
 Irrigation water for agriculture
 Finch, Beles,Qoga,Tendaho,Kasim
 Hydropower
 Gilgel Gibe, Tekeze,koka
 Flood control
Creating head
 Hydropower
Maintaining water level
 Navigation
 Recreation 13
 Multipurpose
 Major data requirement for designing HS
 Topographic map.
 Geologic data.
 Hydrologic data.
 River data.

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 Climate data.
 Available and
Tested construction
material.

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Impacts of Dams
The presence of a dam interferes with natural systems. The main disadvantages
includes  Three Gorges Dam in Yangetz
Resettlement and relocation river in China
 181 m high, 2.335 Km long
 over 1,000,000 dams so far built Gravity dam
 40 to 80 million displaced

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 Reservoir stores 39 Km3,
Destruction of fauna and flora surface area 1024 Km2
Change in groundwater level  Reservoir length 600 Km
 Uses
 groundwater level rise sometimes up to 90m  Produces 22,000 MW,
 damage to infrastructure  flood protection
 damage to farmland (water logging)  Naviagtion
Influence on sediment balance  Impacts
 1.24 million people
Influence on fish displaced
 Over 6000 species of
plants

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Dam Structure and Reservoirs
1. Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Service Intake
4. Bottom outlet
5. Spill structure
6. Diversion structure

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7. Service road

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Storage Components Dead storage
Live storage
Normal pool level
Maximum flood level

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Reservoirs
 Functions of reservoirs in hydraulic engineering
Balancing water demand and supply
 river flow varies seasonally
 water demand vary seasonally
Storage of water
Classification of storage based on use

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Water supply, irrigation, hydro power, flood control, low flow augmentation, etc
Classification based on storage or balancing period
Day, weak, month, year storage
Reservoir Parameters
The most important reservoir parameter are
 Reservoir Volume (storage) =S (m3)
 Reservoir Area – A (m2)

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Reservoir storage area is computed using topographic map or contour and the
storage capacity (volume) is computed by the following equation.

1. Average area or Trapezoidal method

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2. Simpson’s 1/3 rule method
where Am mean area b/n Ai &Ai+1

3. Simpson’s 3/8 rule method

where Am mean area b/n Ai &Ai+1

change in elevation or contour interval.
A1, A2, A3 are planar area at interpolation point
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These parameters can be computed with the help of topographic map

Dam at Site A
Dam of 50m high
Topo 10 m interval

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209
0 m
` A 204
0 m

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 Area (m2)

Elevation (m)
2090
rve

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h n Cu
atio
2080 E le v
h –
l ume
Vo n Cu
rve
h vatio
Are a - E le
2060
h
h
2040
1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume (m3)

Area Capacity Curve

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Classification of Dams

Dams are numerous types and there are various ways of classification

Classification based on purpose

A. Storage dams: They are constructed to impound water in periods of surplus supply for
use in period of deficient supply

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B. Diversion Dams: they are constructed to provide head for carrying water in to ditches
or other conveyance systems to the place of use
C. Detention Dams: They are constructed to retard flood runoff and minimize the effect
of floods.

Classification based on hydraulic design

D. Overflow dams: are those designed to carry discharge over their crests Eg. concrete
dam
E. Non overflow dams: are those designed not to be overtopped Eg. Embankment dam
F. Composite dams:
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Classification based on construction material
A. Embankment dam
B. Concrete dam

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Embankment Dam

 Any dam constructed of excavated materials placed without addition of binding

materials other than those inherent in the natural material.
 The material is usually obtained at or near dam site.

 Account for over 83% of all large dams

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Embankment dams resist load by gravity and embankment stability (link).
 The dam should stand by itself without failing
 The dam should support the load of the stored water without failing

Embankment dam consists of three basic parts:

shell,
core and
foundation.
Additional appurtenances are may be present depending on type of dam.

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 Transition filter
rap
Rip

Water hell

D/
Core
ss

ss
/
U 1 rain

he

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2 e d

ll
To
Upstream impervious blanket
Cutoff wall
Pervious foundation
3

Impervious stratum

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Foundation
 Provides support both to vertical and horizontal load
 Resist seepage underneath the embankment

 Core
 To prevent seepage of water through the embankment
 Can be placed at the center or upstream from the center

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 It may extend to impervious stratum in pervious foundation
 Materials
 Earth (cheap)
Permeability (cm/s)
Gravel 1 to 100
Sand 1 to 10-3
Silt 10-3 to 10-5
Clay < 10-6

Concrete (less flexible)

Shell 27

To provide structural support for the core and to distribute the load to foundation
Types of Embankment Dams
 Embankment dams are classified in to two types:
 Earth fill / Earth dams and
 Rock fill dams.

Earthfill dams / earth dams

 An earth dam is an embankment dam, constructed primarily of compacted earth or soil,

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and containing more than 50% of earth material.

 Three main types of earth dam

 Homogeneous earth dam (only
one kind of material)
 Zoned earth dam
 Diaphragm earth dam

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Rock fill embankment dams
A rock fill dam is an embankment dam, constructed primarily of rock, as a major
structural element and containing more than 50% of rock. (link)

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Embankment Dams

A . Advantages
Suitable to wide valley and steep gorges alike
Adaptable to wide range of foundation condition 100 m high dam
Insensitive to settlement’ (load to the foundation)
Emankment 1.8-2.1 Mpa
Simple construction, high mechanized process Gravity dam 3.2 – 4.0 Mpa

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Use of natural materials, minimizing cost of transportation Buttress dam 5.5 – 7.5 Mpa
Increasing dam height is simple Arch dam 7.5-10.0 MPa
Can be well integrated to the landscape.

B. Disadvantage
 Sensitive to wave action
 Overtopping is not allowed, higher free board
 Erosion danger on the d/s unless berms are provided
 Construction material and progress affected by weather
 Huge mass 50m high 500 m crest length
Embankment dam: 3.4 million m3 soil
Gravity dam: 687,500 m3 concrete 20% of Embankment 30
volume
Selection of type of dam

 Two main questions during the early planning and design stages ,
 where to build? i.e., selection of the site and
 what type? selection of the type of dam should be carefully considered.
Factors to be considered
 Topography- as much as possible at narrow gorge.

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 Suitable foundation-Even if sound foundation is not found
we have adopt d/t treatment measures.
 Spillway Site-as much as possible near dam.
 Availability of construction material
 Water tightness of reservoir(Geology)
 Submergence area
 Accessibility
 EIA
 Sediment rate
 Over all cost

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 Note
 It is only in exceptional circumstances that only one type of dam is suitable for a given dam
site.
Generally, preliminary designs and estimates for several types of dams and appurtenant
structures are required before one can be proved the most suitable and economical.

 The selection of the type of dam requires cooperation among experts representing several
disciplines-including

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hydrologists;
geotechnical, hydraulic, and structural engineers and
engineering geologists
to ensure economical and appropriate designs for the physical factors, such as topography,
geology and foundation conditions, available materials, hydrology, and seismicity.

Selection of Appropriate Dam type

Depends on
1.Topography
2.Geology
3.Foundation condition
4.Availability construction material 33

5.Suitable site for spillway

 Some of the factors that are considered in selection of dam type are
 topography
 foundation condition
 availability of construction material
 spillway size and location
Topography
Topography consideration include :

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 surface configuration of the dam site and reservoir area
 accessibility to the site and construction materials
 Topography, in large measure, dictates the first choice of type of dam
 A narrow stream flowing between high, rocky walls would suggest a
concrete dam
A narrow V-shaped valley with abutments strong enough to resist the
arch thrust is best suited for an arch dam.
 For a moderately wide valley with small depth of overburden and strong
foundations at the base, a gravity or buttress dam is indicated;
 A low, rolling plain would suggest an earth dam with a separate spillway
 For intermediate conditions, other conditions takes on importance location of
spillway 34
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Geology and foundation conditions
Foundation condition of a site depends on:
 the geological characteristics of the strata which are to carry the weight of the dam
their inclination, permeability, existing faults and fissures

A. Solid rock foundation

Main feature

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 high bearing capacity > 5MPa
 high shearing strength
 resistance to erosion and seepage

Suitable: all types of dam

B. Gravel foundation
Main features:
 medium bearing capacity 200-600 Kpa
 serious percolation / seepage problem thus require special precaution with cutoffs
Suitable: if well compacted, it is suitable for earth fill, rock fill, small concrete gravity dam
Unsuitable: large concrete dams 36
C. Silt and fine sand foundations
Main features
 Low bearing capacity (100-300 kpa)
 Collapse up on saturation
 Piping
 Percolation losses

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Suitable: if properly designed, they are suitable for earth fill and small concrete
gravity dams
Unsuitable: rock fill and large concrete dams

D. Clay foundation
Main features
 Low bearing capacity (75 -300 kpa)
 Low foundation shearing strength
 Excessive settlements of unconsolidated and high mositure content

Suitable: earthfill dams after special treatment

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E. Non uniform foundation

 Availability of Materials

 Materials for dams of various types which may sometimes be available at or near a dam
site include
Soil for embankments
Rock for embankments and rip rap
Concrete aggregates (sand, gravel, crushed stone)

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 Elimination or reduction of transportation expenses for construction materials,
particularly those which are used in great quantity, will effect a considerable reduction
in the total cost of the project.

 Availability of sand and gravel for concrete at a reasonable cost locally -> Concrete
Dam
 Availability of suitable soils for an earth fill in nearby borrow pits -> Earth fill dams

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Spillway size and location

 Spillways, as a safety structure, are an important components of dams.

The size, type and natural restriction in locations will be a controlling factor in the choice
of the type of dam

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Spillways requirements are dictated primarily by the hydrology of the area, i.e., runoff
and stream flow characteristics

The selection of a specific spillway type will be influenced by the magnitude of the
floods to be passed.
Thus in streams with large floods, the spillway will become the dominant structure
and the selection of the dam type will become secondary.
The cost of the spillway will become a considerable portion of the total cost of the
dam project. In such cases combining the spillway with the dam as in the case of
concrete overflow dams will become advantageous.

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Selection of Dam Sites
Two requirements,
 Functional
Technical

Functional Requirement
 The functional requirement refers to a balance between the sites natural physical

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characteristics (supply) with the purpose of the reservoir (demand)
 Catchment Area and hydrology.
 One of main function of a dam is to create storage reservoir behind it. Water is
stored from the period of surplus to be used during the period of deficit to meet
specific demands. This means that the catchment area, catchment characteristics
and catchment hydrology should be of such size and characteristics that the runoff
produced from the catchment and stored behind the dam is capable of meeting the
demand imposed on the dam. of such magnitudes.
 Available head
 One of the hydraulic parameter in the study of hydropower potential of a site is the
head available. A great saving in hydropower development can be gained, if the head
for power generation is obtained from the natural topography of a site. 40
 Valley forms
For storage at economic costs a bottleneck configuration is required.
A site where the river has a U-bend 'or an S-curve is advantageous in layout as
tunnels needed for diversion or conveyance can be aligned across the bend and
thus be shorter in length.

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Bottle neck U configuration
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Technical
 Geology of dam site:
A dam is a massive structure and imposes not only the heavy load of the dam body
but also high water pressures on the foundations. It is necessary that the foundations
be able to sustain these loads, after suitable treatment where necessary, without such
deformations or stress concentrations as may cause damage tq or failure of the dam.
 Reservoir water tightness:

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 Abutment stability and water tightness
 Availability of construction materials
 Availability of suitable site for spillway

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Dam site investigation and selection
Project Cycle for a Dam Project
 Three project phases

Project
Project Planning Project Implementation
Operation

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Design Review &
Detail Study Modifications

Feasibility Study Contract Management and Construction

Supervision Works

Reconnaissance Procurement Construction Commissioni Full

Study ng Operation
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2-8
5-25 years 50-100 years
years
Project Planning Phase
 Three stages

One/two
2

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Detail Study Stage Alternatives

Feasibility Study 2 Few

5
Stage Alternatives

Reconnaissance Several
1 2 3 4 5
Study Stage Alternatives
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Reconnaissance Survey
Principal objective
 to collect extensive topographical, geological and hydrological data in order to
 Make initial recommendation with respect to the technical and economic viability
of the reservoir,
 Prepare alternative options with respect to
 location

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 height,
 type of dam
 Make comparision interms of
 Estimated costs and
 Construction programme
 Plan detailed investigation required
 Data required
1. Topographic Data
 Selection of dam and reservoir site require presence of a suitable topography.
Information may be obtained from
 Large scale topo maps > 1:5000
 Aerial photography 46

 Field visits
  The criteria for the choice of the site include investigation of
 valley form
• V shape
• U shaped
• Wide valley
• The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in
the storage part

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 slope

2. Geologic Data
 A geological map of the entire catchment is essential
 Aerial photographs provide valuable information on geology, possible dam
sites, availability of construction materials.

3. Water resources data

 Catchment area
 Maximum floods
 Meterological data
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Feasibility study
Principal objective is to
 Collect additional data and carry detailed investigation inorder to
 Ascertain the integrity of the reservoir basin
 To arrive at a prefered options
 dam location
 dam type

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 dam height
 To prepare preliminary engineering cost estimate
 To assesses potential environmental impact
 Data required
1. Topographic data
 Detailed topo map of the
 the reservoir
 the dam and spillway site (< 1:5000)
2. Geological and geotechnical
 Competence of the foundation to carry the dam
 Stability
 Load carrying capacity 48

 Deformability
 Effective permeability
  Determination of seepage
 Confirming the integrity of the reservoir w.r.t water retention
 Identification of construction material
 location and extent of potential sources of construction materials
 Large scale geological and hydro geological map are required
 Field exploration & investigation are carried out
 exploration by test pits, trenches, core drilling

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 geophysical methods

3. Water Resources Data

 Detailed hydrological analysis
 Analysis of reservoir yield
 Further analysis of sedimentation
 Further analysis of the environmental impact

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