Lecture #9

GIS Data Models

GIS Data Models, Vector Data Models,

Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector
Data Models.

Engr. Zahoor Khan

Lecturer, DCE Abasyn University Peshawar
 CONTENTS

• INTRODUCTION
• SPATIAL DATA MODELS
• DATA REPRESENTATION
• VECTOR DATA MODEL
• TYPES OF VECTOR DATA MODELS
• ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
 INTRODUCTION

MODEL

• A model is a simplified representation of a phenomenon or a

system.

• Models using geographically referenced data are usually

called “spatially explicit models.”

CLASSIFICATION OF GIS MODELS

1. A model may be descriptive or prescriptive.

2. A model may be deterministic or stochastic.
3. A model may be static or dynamic.
4. A model may be deductive or inductive.
 THE ROLE OF GIS IN MODELING

1. A GIS is a tool that can process, display, and

integrate different data sources including maps,
digital elevation models (DEMs), GPS (global
positioning system) data, images, and tables.

2. A GIS can be used to build a vector-based or raster

based model.

3. A GIS has algorithms for conversion between vector

and raster data.

4. The process of modeling may take place in a GIS or

use a GIS to link other computer programs.
 SPATIAL DATA MODELS

• The traditionally spatial data are stored in the form of digital databases
and presented them in the form of maps.
• Two basic types of spatial data models have been evolved for storing
geographicdata digitally.
• These are referred to as
(1) Raster Data Model (2) Vector Data Model
 SPATIAL DATA MODELS

• Rasterdata is made up of a matrix

of pixels (cells)

• The vector data is made up of

points, polygons and lines.

• As compared to the vector data

structure, the raster data

structure is not particularly
accurate as representing discrete
features that is, those feature that
have a distinct boundary and
shape.
 VECTOR DATA MODELS

• In this model, space is not quantized into discrete grid cells like the
raster model.

 The vector data models use points, their XY co-ordinates to represent

the vertices spatial features.

 The vector data models represent geographic features as if they were

being drawn on a map by hand (Aronoff 1989)

 Points represent geographic features too small to be depicted as lines
or areas; lines represents geographic features too narrow to depict as
areas; and areas represents homogeneous geographic features.
 VECTOR DATA MODELS
Three fundamental vector types exist in geographic information systems
(GISs): points, lines, and polygons (Figure 4.8 "Points, Lines, and
Polygons").

Points:
Points are zero-dimensional objects that contain only a single coordinate pair.
Points are typically used to model singular, discrete features such as buildings,
wells, power poles, sample locations, and so forth. Points have only the
 VECTOR DATA MODELS

• Other types of point features include the node and the vertex.
• Specifically, a point is a stand-alone feature, while a node is a

topological junction representing a common X, Y coordinate pair

between intersecting lines and/or polygons.
• Vertex (plural vertices) is defined as each bend along a line or polygon

feature that is the intersection of lines or polygons.

• Points can be spatially linked to form more complex features.
 VECTOR DATA MODELS

Lines:
• Lines are one-dimensional features composed of multiple, explicitly

connected points.
• Lines are used to represent linear features such as roads, streams,

faults, boundaries, and so forth.

• Lines have the property of length.
• Lines that directly connect two nodes are sometimes referred to as

chains, edges, segments, or arcs.

 VECTOR DATA MODELS

POLYGONS: 
• Polygons are two-dimensional features created by multiple lines that
loop back to create a “closed” feature.
• In the case of polygons, the first coordinate pair (point) on the first line
segment is the same as the last coordinate pair on the last line
segment.
• Polygons are used to represent features such as city boundaries,
geologic formations, lakes, soil associations, vegetation communities,
and so forth.
• Polygons have the properties of area and perimeter.
• Polygons are also called areas.
 1. VECTOR DATA MODEL STRUCTURES
• Vector data models can be structured many different ways. We will
examine two of the more common data structures here.
1. Spaghetti data model

2. Topology data model

• The simplest vector data structure is called the spaghetti data

model (Dangermond 1982).Dangermond, J. 1982. “A Classification of
Software Components Commonly Used in Geographic Information
Systems.” In Proceedings of the U.S.-Australia Workshop on the Design
and Implementation of Computer-Based Geographic Information
Systems, 70–91.
 1. VECTOR DATA MODEL STRUCTURES

• In the spaghetti model, each point, line, and/or polygon

feature is represented as a string of X, Y coordinate pairs (or
as a single X, Y coordinate pair in the case of a vector image
with a single point) with no inherent structure

• Each point, line, or polygon is stored as a record in a file that

consists ID and a list of coordinates.

Points Data Storage

+1 Point ID Coordinates
+2 1 1, 1
2 4, 2
+3 3 5, 2
+4

4 2, 4
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 1. VECTOR DATA MODEL STRUCTURES

• One could envision each line in this model to be a single strand of

spaghetti that is formed into complex shapes by the addition of
more and more strands of spaghetti.

• It is notable that in this model, any polygons that lie adjacent to

each other must be made up of their own lines, or stands of
spaghetti.

• In other words, each polygon must be uniquely defined by its

own set of X, Y coordinate pairs, even if the adjacent polygons
share the exact same boundary information.

• This creates some redundancies within the data model and

therefore reduces efficiency.

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1. VECTOR DATA MODEL STRUCTURES

Lines:

ID Coordinates
1 (0,1), (3,4), (5,6)
2 (3,1), (5,2), (4,3)

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1. VECTOR DATA MODEL STRUCTURES

Advantages

1. Simple

2. Relatively efficient as a method of cartographic display

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 1. VECTOR DATA MODEL STRUCTURES

Disadvantages
• Common boundary of two adjacent polygon are stored twice.

• Inefficient for most type of spatial analyses.

• Correction and updates of the data must rely on visual checks of

graphic output.

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 2. TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR DATA MODEL

• In contrast to the spaghetti data model, the topological data

model is characterized by the inclusion of topological information
within the dataset, as the name implies. 

• Topology is a set of rules that model the relationships between

neighboring points, lines, and polygons and determines how they
share geometry. For example, consider two adjacent polygons.

• In the spaghetti model, the shared boundary of two neighboring

polygons is defined as two separate, identical lines.

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 2. TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR DATA MODEL

• The inclusion of topology into the data model allows for a single
line to represent this shared boundary with an explicit reference
to denote which side of the line belongs with which polygon.

• Topology is also concerned with preserving spatial properties

when the forms are bent, stretched, or placed under similar
geometric transformations, which allows for more efficient
projection and reprojection of map files.

• In addition to coordinate locations, Topological vector model

explicitly record topological relationships (Polygon adjacency is
an example)

“Topology: Spatial relationships between points, lines & polygons”

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 THE ARC-NODE DATA STRUCTURE
2
3 Arc: ①, ②, ③
1
Nodes: 2, 5
A ③ B ②
Vertices: 1, 6 for arc ①
① 4
3, 4 for arc ②
5
6

Arc # Start Node Vertices End Node

1 2 1,6 5 Points
2 2 3,4 5 1 x1,y1
3 2 5 2 x2,y2
3 x3,y3
4 x4,y4
Polygon arc list 5 x5,y5
6 x6,y6
A ①, ③
B ②, ③
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 TOPOLOGY

Topology defines spatial relationships. The arc-node data structure supports

three major topological concepts:

Connectivity:
Arcs connect to each other at nodes
Area definition:
Arcs that connect to surround an area define a polygon
Contiguity:
Arcs have direction and left and right sides

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 TOPOLOGY--Connectivity

Connected arcs are determined by searching through the list for common
node numbers.
Arc-node list
10 ① 11 12
②
Arc From-Node To-Node
1 10 11
③
2 11 12
13
⑤ 3 11 13
14 4 13 15
④
5 13 14
15

Because of the common node 11, arcs 1, 2, and 3 all intersect. The computer
can determine that it is possible to travel along arc 1 and turn onto arc 3. But it
is not possible to turn directly from arc 1 to arc 5.
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 TOPOLOGY—Area definition
A
1 Polygon-Arc Topology
8
B 5
C Polygon Arc List
4 E 9 2 B 1,5,8,4
C 2,6,9,5
D 6 D ?
7
E ?
3

Polygons are simply the list of arcs defining its boundary, arc coordinates
are stored only once, therefore, reducing the amount of data and ensuring
that the boundaries of adjacent polygons don’t overlap

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 TOPOLOGY--Contiguity
An Arc
left
From-Node To-Node
right
Direction

1
8 Arc Left Right
B 5
C Polygon Polygon
4 E 9 2 5 C B
9 E C
D 6 10 ? ?
7
1 ? ?

Two geographic features which share a boundary are called

adjacent. Contiguity is the topological concept which allows
the vector data model to determine adjacency.

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 ADVANTAGES OF VECTOR DATA MODELS

• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional

Cartographic representation).
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data
conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Compact data structure for homogeneous areas
 DISADVANTAGES OF VECTOR DATA MODELS

 Not as compatible with remote sensing as raster data.

 Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented

in vector form. Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation
is required for these data layers.

 Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible

 Overlay analysis is more time consuming than raster data

 Spatial analysis and filtering within polygon are impossible

 VECTOR DATA MODELS FORMATS

• Vector formats are either page definition languages or preserve ground

co-ordinates.
Common vector formats are

• Hardware Specific Formats/ Plotter formats

• PostScript
• Digital Exchange Format (DXF)
• Digital Line Graph (DLG)
• Shapefile
• SVG(Scalable Vector Graphics)
• Arc-Info Coverage
• Arc-Info Interchange (e00)
• GeoDatabase