Instruction and Instructional Design:

 Past & Present

Farnoush H. Davis
 
© 2009, Ed Tech Department, BSU
Table of Contents:
 
3-4      History of ID
5-6      Definition of ID
7-8      Notion of "Systematic"
9-10    Use of Models
11-12  The Gentry ID Model
13-14  The Smith and Ragan ID Model
15-16  The Seels and Glasgow ID Model
17-18  The Bergman and Moore Model
19-20  The Morrison, Ross and Kemp ID Model
21-22  The Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell ID MOdel
23-24  Constructivism
25-26  Empiricism
27-28  Behaviorism
29-30  Information-Processing Theory
31-32  ID and Ed Tech Relation
33       APA Refrences 
 

 
History of Instructional Design (ID)

According to A History of Instructional Design article (Reiser, R.), the instructional design
process came to exist in World War II. During this time, American military employed
experienced educators and psychologists to research and improve training for the military
services. For this purpose, training materials developed based on “instructional principles”
and followed by psychological testing to evaluate trainees’ trained skills which decreased
the failure rate in military service performance. Therefore, training became a system which
needs analysis, design, and evaluation.
 
The image implies that the modern (new) structure of the ID is a reflection of its
background.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/MoSqD
Definition of ID

Instructional design is an organized plan in which learning and teaching procedure –

including materials, instruction process, learning activities, and testing - develops
methodically.
 
The image implies that designing an instructional plan is like weaving a rug, the more
knots(details) in it the better it is.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/JuKsl
Notion of Systematic

Systematic means an organized and methodical structure from basic to complex order.
There are advantages in using systematic ID such as learner-center instruction, improve
designer and instructor cooperation, and outline to solve probable learning problems.
(Smith and Ragan)   
 
The arrangement and symmetric order of the drawing and the way it pieces together to
make a united image implies to me a systematic format. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/10K13D
Models

Models simplify and identify the concept of the instructional plan and assist the
instructional designer to apply appropriate instructional tools and techniques (Gustafson &
Branch).
The image implies that model is a sample of a reality around us.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/d01wC
The Gentry Model

Instructional Project Development and Management (IPDM) is a systems-oriented model

which is created by Gentry (1994). IPDM focuses on “what”, the concept, and “how”, the
procedure, of the ID process. (Gustafson & Branch, p.69)
The Smith and Ragan Model

Smith and Ragan created a systems-oriented model which is popular in the field of
instructional technology. The importance of this model in ID process is for its perspective
in cognitive psychology. (Gustafson & Branch, p.77)
The Seels and Glasgow Model

ISD Model 2 is a product-oriented model presented by Seels and Glasgow. Based on this
model, instructional design happens in the context of project management (Gustafson &
Branch, p.63).
The Bergman and Moore Model

Bergman and Moore published this product-oriented ID model which focuses on managing
the instruction process through interactive multi-media products. Basically, this ID model is
suitable for today’s high technology interactive tools (Gustafson & Branch, p.52).
The Morrison, Ross and Kemp Model

This popular ID model is a classroom-oriented model, created by Morrison, Ross, and

Kemp. The focus of this model is on curriculum planning and students’ needs (Gustafson
& Branch, p.48)
The Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell Model

The Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell presented PIE model which is a classroom-
oriented ID model. PIE is an acronym for Planning, Implementing and Evaluating. PIE has
a learner-centered environment in which the learner’s role for each phase of PIE is
defined. Using media and technology tools to assist learners is considered (Gustafson &
Branch, p.44).  
Constructivism

The philosophical notion of the constructivism is “rationalism”, means, reason is the source
of knowledge and also there is not a certain reality to discover, but for the number of each
individual there is a personal reality (Smith and Ragan, p.19).
Each pieces of a jigsaw puzzle are individuals but in collaboration with others they make a
better picture.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/rzndV
 Empiricism

Empiricism or Objectivism is another philosophical approach which states that reality is

objective and knowledge is obtained through experience. Empiricism is also characterized
by “reductionism”, that tries to simplify complex components, and “associationism”, that
relates ideas which experienced repeatedly (Smith and Ragan, p.22). 
 Empiricism is about experience and makes me think of chemestry laboratories where
they discover new facts through experience and trial-and-error mode.
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/581mp
 Behaviorism

Behaviorism was the dominant school of thought for about 50 years. It believes that
behavior is an observable experience that should be studied. This learning theory
emphasized on environment impact on learning process (Smith and Ragan, p.25).
The flood re-form the shape of the rocks, this implies to me the influence of behaviorism in
human's behavior. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 http://bit.ly/PwpnC
Information-Processing Theory

Information-processing theory explains the cognitive development in the process of

learning. The result of learning should make changes in the information-processing system
of human, e.g. memory improvements (Smith and Ragan, p. 30).
The infinite concept of cognitive approach implies to me the endlessness of the sky where
you think it goes on forever. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/4bLhjr
ID and Ed Tech Relation

The procedures of analysis, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating (ADDIE)

prepares an instruction design to identify learner’s needs and also provide solutions for
learner’s problems. In the process of learning, educational technology tools – including
electronic devices, new methods and techniques, etc – are integrated to facilitate and
enhance learning. Since technology tools have become part of the education system, the
coordination between instructional design (ID) and educational technology (Ed Tech) is
essential for an effective and productive learning process. The emerging mode of today’s
technology applications requires a closer collaboration between ID and Ed Tech for a
more supportive and systematic educational environment, because both components
attempt to meet learner’s needs and goals.
 
This image visualizes technology to me which is less face to face interactions and more
machine involvements in all aspects of life.  
 
 
 
 
 
http://bit.ly/sM6Fa 
References:

Gustafson, K.; Branch, R., (2002), Survey of Instructional Development Models.

 
Reiser, R., A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of
Instructional Design.
 
Smith, P.; Ragan, T.,(2005), Instructional Design.