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Equipment Design (Week 5) : Dr. H.B. Vuthaluru
Equipment Design (Week 5) : Dr. H.B. Vuthaluru
• Proprietary equipment
– pumps, compressors, filters, centrifuges, dryers
– designed and manufactured by specialist firms
• Non-proprietary equipment
– Role of chemical engineer
• usually limited to selecting and sizing the equipment
Types of Equipment
• Example
– Distillation column
– What’s the role of chemical engineer
• Determine the number of plates
• Type and design of plates
• Type and design of plate
• Diameter of the column
• Position of the inlet, outlet and instrument nozzles
• What next??
– This information is transmitted in the form of sketches,
specification sheets, to the specialist mechanical design groups or
fabricating design team for detailed design
Design Methods
• Selection charts
• Heat exchangers
• Tanks
• In-process pressure vessels
• Separation columns
• Pumps
• Compressors
Design of heat exchangers
• Procedure
– Obtain key specifications from M&E balances (duty, flows, temperatures)
– Estimate/obtain physical properties (, , k)
– Select heat exchanger (TEMA Standards)
– Obtain overall H/T coefficient (Uest)
– Calculate Tm (log mean driving force)
– Use governing equation to get area, A
– Choose appropriate layout (shell/tube side passes etc)
• Then
– Calculate individual coefficients than U
– Compare U and Uest
– Calculate P (shell, tube sides)
Heat exchangers - Governing Equation
Q = UA Tm
Tlm = Ft Tm
– Adjusts Tlm for number of shell and tube passes (flow pattern)
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients
c
Typical S&T Exchangers
Fixed Tube Sheet
c
Typical S&T Exchangers
U-tube Exchanger (U)
Typical S&T Exchangers
Internal Floating Head (S)
HE’s - Detailed Engineering Design
• Principal references
– TEMA Standards
– Coulson &Richardson
– Walas
– BS3274
– AS1210
– AS3857
Storage Tanks and Drums
• Principal references
– BS2654
• Detailed design
– Brownell and Young (1959)
Major Storage Tanks
• Atmospheric storage
– Cone roof tank
– Floating roof tank
• Specifications
– HK, LK in top and bottom products
– Column pressure (determined by condensers)
• Sizing
– Minimum stages via Fenske; Min RR via Underwood
– Performance via ASPEN PLUS
– Actual column based on an efficiency (literature/correlation)
– Diameter based on percent flooding
– Pressure drop based on vapor-liquid correlations
– Shell and head thicknesses via AS1210
• Tall columns increase due to bending moment
Pumps
• Power
PQP
P
P
P pressure drop ( N / m 2 )
QP flow rate (m / s )
3
P pump efficiency
0.7 for centrifugal
0.9 reciprocat ing
Gas moving equipment
• Classification
– Fans P<15 kPa
– Blowers 3kPa< P<5 bar
– Compressors P<5 bar
• Types of compressors
– Rotodynamic
• Centrifugal
• Axial
– Positive displacement
• Reciprocating piston
• Rotary (screw, lobes, blades)
Rotarydynamic Compressors
Compressor sizing
• Polytropic process:
• Work:
n
fZ1 RT1 n P2
n 1
• whereW = work (W) W 1
M n 1 P1
Z = compressibility factor
T1 = inlet temperature (K)
M = Mol wt.
P1, P2 = inlet and outlet pressures
n = polytropic coefficient (dependent on design/operation)
f = gas flowrate
R = 8.314 J/mol.K
Compressibility Factor, Z
Compressor sizing
m
P
• Temperature out: T2 T1 2
P1
n = [Y-m(1+X)]
`
X, Y = compressibility functions
Reactors
– Pickett (1979), Rousar et al. (1985) and Scott (1991) covers the
design of electrochemical reactors
Reactors
• Gather all the kinetic and thermodynamic data on the desired and side
reactions
• Collect the physical property data
– either from the literature, estimation or experiments
• Identify the predominant rate-controlling mechanism, kinetic, mass or
heat transfer
• Choose a suitable reactor type and materials
• Make an initial selection of the reactor conditions
– to arrive at the desired conversion and yield
• Size the reactor and estimate its performance
• Make a preliminary mechanical design
– vessel design, heat transfer surfaces, internals
• Cost the prosed design (capital and operating) and repeat to optimise the
design
Design of Pressure Vessels
• Mechanical design of pressure vessels
• usually carried out by mechanical engineers who are conversant with the current
design codes and practices and methods of stress analysis
• Responsible for developing and specifying the basic design information for a
particular vessel
– Vessel function
– Materials of construction
– Two types
• Thin-walled (if the ratio of wall thickness to vessel diameter < (1/10))
• Thick-walled (if the ratio of wall thickness to vessel diameter > (1/10))
– Class 1
• majority of the vessels used in the chemical and allied industries
– Class 2
• for high pressure applications
Blowdown vessel
Blowdown or Blowup!
3
– Radial stress
• Thin-walled
3 is small and can be ignored
1 & 2 can be taken as constant over the
wall thickness
• Thick-walled
3 is significant
1 will vary across the wall
Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards
• National standards and codes of practice
– In many countries
• codes and standards are legally enforceable
– United Kingdom
• British Standard specification for fusion-welded pressure vessels (BS 5500)
• or equivalent code “American Society of Mechanical Engineers code (ASME)”
• BS 5500
– covers vessels fabricated in carbon and alloy steels and aluminium
• BS 4994
– covers the design of vessels in reinforced plastics
Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards
• United States of America
• ASME Division 1
• ASME Division 2
• API-510 ‘American Petroleum Institute - Pressure Vessels used in Chemical & Petroleum’
• NEC ‘National Electrical Code [NFPA- National Fire Protection Association] -Electrical
Devices
• NFPA ‘National Fire Protection Association’ - Service Conditions & Special Hazards
• cylindrical
• conical
• hemispherical
• ellipsoidal
• torispherical
Solid revolution is formed by rotating an area about an axis
Fundamental Principles
• Principal Stresses
– the maximum values of the normal stresses at the point, which act on
planes on which shear stress is zero
• Theories of failure
• Elastic stability
• Dilation of vessels
– under internal pressure a vessel will expand slightly
– radial growth can be calculated from the elastic strain in the radial direction
Stress Analysis
• In the stress analysis of pressure vessels
• Primary stresses
• gross distortion and in the extreme situation, failure of the vessel will
occur
Stress Analysis
• Secondary stresses
– are those that arise from the constraint of adjacent parts of the vessels
– local yielding or slight distortion will satisfy the conditions causing the stress
and failure would not be expected to occur in one application of the loading
• eg. Thermal stress set up by the differential expansion of parts of the vessel, due to
– different temperatures or the use of different materials
– The discontinuity that occurs between the head and the cylindrical section of a
vessel is a major source of secondary stress
– Other sources
• are the constraints arising at flanges, supports and the change of section due to
reinforcement at a nozzle or opening
General Design Considerations
(Pressure Vessels)
• Design pressure and design temperature
• Design stress
• Construction categories
• Corrosion allowances
• Design loads
• Vessel designed
– must be able to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to
be subjected in any given operation
– For eg. In UK, carbon and alloy steels for pressure vessels are covered
by BS 1501 plates, BS 1502 section etc.
Design Stress
• How it is done??
– By applying suitable design stress factor (factor of safety) to the
maximum stress that the material could be expected to withstand without
failure under standard test conditions
– Design stress factor allows for any uncertainty in the design methods, the
loading, the quality of the materials and the workmanship (refer to BS 5500)
The attachment of nozzle necks to heads, shells and transition sections is categorised as a
D joint
Welded Joint Categories (ASME VIII-1)
•Four joint categories in VIII-1 do not apply to the following items
- jacket closure bars
- tube sheet attachments
- ring girders (or supports)
•Degree of examination of the welds attaching these components to the shell or head is not
covered in VII-1.
•Most designers assign a value an E value of 1.0 when calculating the shell or head
thickness at such junctions.
Joint Efficiency Factors
– Examination varies
• From full radiographic to visual
– Depending on various factors specified in VIII-1 and by the user
Joint Efficiency Factors
• Classification of loads
– Major loads
– Subsidiary loads
• Major loads
– design pressure including any static head of liquid
– maximum weight of the vessel and contents under operating conditions
– Loads supported by, or reacting on, the vessel
– maximum weight of the vessel and contents under hydraulic test conditions
– Earthquake loads and wind loads
Design Loads
• Subsidiary loads
– Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting
pipes
– Shock loads caused by water hammer
– Bending moments caused eccentricity of the centre of working pressure
relative to the neutral axis of the vessel
– Stresses due to temperature differences
• subsequent effect arising due to the differences in the coefficient of
expansion of materials
– Loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure
• A vessel will not be subject to all these loads at the same time
• General rule
– the wall thickness of any vessel should not be less than the values
given below
– these values include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm
• materials of construction/gasketing/finishing
Entries and Nozzles
T-xxx ES-xxx PFD-xxx Pressurized NG storage Bulk storage facility TBA TBA
EQUIPMENT SCHEDULE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Project: Space Launch Systems
CLIENT: XXXXXX Specification No: ES-1001
• Heat exchangers
– Type (S&T Type (S&T- TEMA Std, plate, spiral, compact)
– Duty (kW) & Heat transfer area (m2)
– Length, height, diameter (m)
– S&T Orientation (vertical, horizontal)
– Shell side & Tube side operating /design conditions
– Nozzles Nozzles – size (NB), type, rating and location
• Inlets, outlets (process flows)
• Steam / Cooling water
• Instruments (LGs, P, L, T)
– Supports (Saddle, legs, plinths) Supports (Saddle, legs, plinths)
– Materials selection Materials selection
Sample Data Sheet (Appendix H)
Case Study
Heat Exchanger Details
Tube pitch options
Major references:
• Water
– What’s the use of this utility in a Chemical Process Plant??
• Used in chemical reactions and in washing, extracting, dissolving and
similar processing operation, for drinking, sanitary and general clean-up,
washing etc.
Utilities
• Types of water
• Steam
• Refrigeration
– Used mainly to supply cooling water
– Examples
• for single-stage ammonia compression which requires cooling water at
85°F
• Steam jet refrigeration used to obtain cooling water at 50°F
(steam jet refrigeration is especially advantageous with cheap low-pressure
exhaust steam and cooling water available)
Utilities
• Compressed air
– used for pneumatic transport, pumping air into the system (power utility)
etc.
– usually supplied from an air compressor
– Air compressor
• A machine which usually sucks in air and compresses same so that it
ultimately occupies a smaller volume.
• The resulting air will not only occupy a smaller volume, it will have a higher
pressure and a higher temperature.
• Inert Gas
– N2, CO2, Ar and He are examples of inert gases
– used for start-up and purging operations
• Miscellaneous
– This includes gaskets, lubricants, paint, test chemicals etc.
Cooling Water Systems
• Three systems normally used are:
– Once through
– Open evaporative recirculating
– Closed non-evaporative recirculating
Advantages:
– No cooling tower system; No water treating
Disadvantages:
– Corrosion; Fouling, Waste of water and Thermal pollution of river
Cooling Water Systems
– Fouling
• silting/sedimentation (particles in source water, e.g. sand)
– scaling (precipitation of salts)
– biological growth (heat, oxygen, phosphates promote biological
growth)
– corrosion
Cooling Water Systems
– Scale inhibitors:
• modify crystal scale growth
– inorganic: polyphosphates
– organic: phosphorous compounds
Steam
• Steam is used as a medium for transferring and
transporting energy.
Distribution pressure
• High pressure
– Advantages: smaller mains; low installation cost; less insulation
required
– Disadvantages:
• high pressure heat exchanger equipment or local pressure reduction valves
required
• difficult to recover low grade heat (low temperature) as regenerated steam
Issues of Steam Distribution
Pipe expansion
– "Water hammer":
• Fast moving gas meets slow moving slug of liquid resulting in rapid
vibration of pipe work.
Air removal
• When the steam system is shut down
– the pipe network is usually air filled
– Air can be purged using thermostatic steam traps
– because the temperature of air is lower than that of steam.
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
• Use of nitrogen:
• N2 sources:
– Delivered from N2 manufacturer
– On site generation
Nitrogen
• Delivered N2
– Advantages:
• high purity supply possible
• flexibility in volume supplied
• little or no capital investment in N2 producing equipment
• standard delivery pressure up to 10 atmosphere
• liquid N2 supply as coolant
• Selecting N2 supply
– Decision depends on
• Flow rate required
• Purification of N2 required
• Pattern of demand
• Cost of electrical power available on-site
• Temperature (coolant) and pressure of supply required
• Liquid or gas N2 required
Compressed Air
• Use of compressed air
• Water traps