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The Quantum Theory of
The Quantum Theory of
The Quantum Theory of
h/ p
Wave nature of matter confirmed by electron diffraction studies etc (see earlier).
If matter has wave-like properties then there must be a mathematical function that is the
solution to a differential equation that describes electrons, atoms and molecules.
The differential equation is called the Schrödinger equation and its solution is called the
wavefunction, .
2 1 2
2
2
x v t 2
Where v is the speed of the wave. Can this be used for matter waves in free space?
2
Try a modified wave equation of the following type:
( is a constant) x 2
t
p2
For a particle in a potential V (x,t) then E V ( x, t )
2m
and we have (KE + PE) wavefunction = (Total energy) wavefunction
2 2 TDSE
V ( x , t ) i
2m x 2
t
Points of note:
1The TDSE is one of the postulates of quantum mechanics. Though the SE cannot
be derived, it has been shown to be consistent with all experiments.
2SE is first order with respect to time (cf. classical wave equation).
3SE involves the complex number i and so its solutions are essentially complex.
This is different from classical waves where complex numbers are used imply for
convenience – see later.
The Hamiltonian operator
where Ĥ is called the Hamiltonian operator which is the differential operator that
represents the total energy of the particle.
2
2
ˆ
p 2
Thus Hˆ 2
V ( x )
2m
x
Vˆ ( x)
2 m x
where the momentum operator is pˆ x i
x
ˆ
Thus shorthand for TDSE is: H i
t
Solving the TDSE
then 2 2 T
T 2 V ( x)T i
2m x t
Now divide by T: 2 1 2 1 T
V ( x ) i
2m x 2 T t
LHS depends only upon x, RHS only on t. True for all x and t so both sides must equal a
constant, E (E = separation constant).
1 T
i E
Thus we have: T t
2 1 2
V ( x) E
2m x 2
Time-independent Schrödinger equation
1 dT dT iE
Solving the time equation: i E dt T (t ) Ae iEt /
T dt T
This is exactly like a wave e-it with E = ћ. Therefore T(t) depends upon the energy E.
To find out what the energy actually is we must solve the space part of the problem....
2 2
The space equation becomes 2
V ( x) E or Hˆ E
2m x
In general: op f = cf
Operator x function = a number x the same function
The fuction is said to be an eigenfunction of the operator, and the
number it yields is its eigenvalue .
Eigenvalue equations
EXAMPLE
a) Show that sin(3x) is not an eigenfunction of the operator d/dx.
b) Show that exp(−3ix) is an eigenfunction of the operator d/dx.
What is its eigenvalue?
c) Show that 1/π sin(3x) is an eigenfunction of the operator
((−h2/8π2m)d2/dx2).
What is its eigenvalue?
TISE for a free-particle
2 2
For a free particle V (x) = 0 and TISE is: 2
E
2m x
and has solutions ikx k 2 2
e ikx
or e where E
2m
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY!
Interpretation of (x,t)
As mentioned previously the TDSE has solutions that are inherently complex
(x,t) cannot be a physical wave (e.g. electromagnetic waves). Therefore how can
(x,t) relate to real physical measurements on a system?
* 2
( x, t ) ( x, t )dx ( x, t ) dx P( x, t )dx
* is real as required for a probability distribution and is the probability per unit
length (or volume in 3d).
The Born interpretation therefore calls the probability amplitude, * (=
P(x,t) ) the probability density and * dx the probability.
Expectation values
2
x x xP( x)dx x ( x, t ) dx
The average is also know as the expectation value and are very important in quantum
mechanics as they provide us with the average values of physical properties because in
many cases precise values cannot, even in principle, be determined – see later.
2
Similarly x2 x 2 P( x)dx x 2 ( x, t ) dx
Normalisation
2
P ( x)dx ( x, t ) dx 1
This requirement is known as the Normalisation condition. (This condition arises
because the SE is linear in and therefore if is a solution of TDSE then so is c
where c is a constant.)
Hence if original unnormalised wavefunction is (x,t), then the normalisation integral is:
2
N2 ( x, t ) dx
Example 2: Find the probability that a system described by the function 21/2sin (x)
where 0 x 1 is found anywhere in the interval 0 x 0.25.
Boundary conditions for
In order for to be a solution of the Schrödinger equation to represent a physically
observable system, must satisfy certain constraints:
x x x x
Stationary states
Earlier in the lecture we saw that even when the potential is independent of time the
wavefunction still oscillates in time:
2 2
P( x, t ) ( x, t ) * ( x)e iEt / ( x)e iEt / ( x)
Momentum
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Multiply by
Total energy
Angular momentum
Postulat 3. Dalam menghitung observabel yang berhubungan
dengan operator , hanya nilai yang akan diobservasi adalah nilai
khas (eigenvalue) a , yang memenuhi persamaan eigenvalue
Jika sistem ada dalam suatu keadaan khas (eigenstate) dengan nilai
khas (eigenvalue) a , setiap perhitungan dari jumlah A akan
menghasilkan a.
Pada keadaan acak, persamaan ini dapat dikembangkan dalam
komplete set eigen vektor (
sebagai:
Persamaan eigenvalue:
eigenfunction eigenvalue
Postulat 4. Jika adalah operator
Hermitiandari suatu observabel fisik,
maka fungsi khas (eigen function) Ψi
dari persamaan nilai khas (eigen
value) akan membentuk
suatu himpunan lengkap.
(kaidah degenerasi, non degenerasi
atau orthonormal)
Postulat 6. Fungsi gelombang atau
fungsi keadaan suatu sistem yang
melibatkan waktu dinyatakan oleh
“persamaan Schrodinger gayut waktu
(the time-dependent Schrödinger
equation). ˆ 2 d 2
H 2
V ( x)
2m dx
Dimana
What other information can you get from ?
(and how!)
We have seen how we can use the probability distribution to calculate
the average position of a particle. What happens if we want to calculate the
average energy or momentum because they are represented by the following
differential operators:
2 d2
Hˆ
2m dx 2
V ( x ) ˆ
p x .
i x
Do the operators work on , or on , or on alone?
2 2
E * ( x, t ) ( x, t ) dx
2
2m x
Our definition of the expectation value is one of the postulates of QM – see later
lectures.
Summary
2 2
TDSE: V ( x , t ) i
2m x 2 t
2
Born interpretation: * ( x, t ) ( x, t )dx ( x, t ) dx P( x, t )dx
2
Normalisation: P ( x)dx ( x, t ) dx 1
2 2
TISE: 2
V ( x) E or Hˆ E
2m x
( x, t ) ( x) T (t ) ( x)e iEt /
Boundary conditions on : single-valued, continuous, normalisable, continuous first derivative.
ˆ ( x, t )dx
Expectation value of operator Ω: ( x , t )
Quantum Mechanics of Some Simple Systems
Sehingga: atau
(ћ = h/2π)
Penyelesaian persamaan diatas adalah:
Ĥψ= Eψ
κL = nπ (n = 1,2,3, ...)
κ = nπ / L
Sebuah partikel dalam kotak satu
dimensi
Dengan memasukkan nilai κ ke dalam persamaan (1.45), kita
akan mendapatkan nilai-nilai yang mungkin untuk energi E
dengan nilai integer n .
Ĥψ= Eψ
- Thus, the cubical box has three times the zero point energy of
the corresponding one dimensional well, one-third coming from
each independent coordinate for motion (i.e.,“degree of
freedom”).
- The one in parentheses indicates that this level is nondegenerate.
The next level is produced when one of the quantum numbers n has
a value of two while the others have values of one.
The Particle in a 3-Dimensional “Box”
etc.
Apparently, the energy level scheme and degeneracies of these
levels do not proceed in the regular manner which is found in
the one-dimensional cases we have studied.
Verify that E6 is six-fold degenerate..
The Particle in a 3-Dimensional “Box”
Gambar: Gerak relatif dari sistem dengan 2 partikel (a) Gerak rotasi
dengan r tetap (b) gerak vibrasi.
Pemisahan rotasi dan vibrasi
Dengan
Energi potensial sistem harmonik ini adalah
Aplikasi SE pada harmonik Oscillator
Oleh karena
Maka:
Sehingga
atau
Harmonic oscillator
Note : ʋ = ω/2π
Harmonic oscillator
Where A is constant.
Using the values of principle quantum numbers where n = 0:
But:
atau:
Polynomials like (1−2y2), which are
solutions to the differential equation
(3-33), are known as Hermite
polynomials, Hn(y).
Tabel Polinomial
Hermite Hv(y):
Note:
Harmonic oscillator
Dimana
Dimana ʋ = pengulangan
(frekwensi) getaran = 1/2π(k/μ)1/2
Getaran selaras 2-dimensi
Energi potensial Getaran selaras 2-dimensi:
fungsi gelombang
karena
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…….
Getaran selaras 2-dimensi
Energi
Dimana:
= =
Jadi
Getaran selaras 2-dimensi, nilai
ekspektasi
Tunjukkan bahwa :
a. fungsi gelombang osilator
harmonik keadaan dasar (ground
state) adalah ternormalkan
(orthonormal),
~
v
2c
Persamaan gelombang dalam koordinat polar
Laplacian untuk gerak relatif dari sistem 2 partikel
diberikan oleh:
Dimana
4 (l | M |)!
Eigennya:
P ( x) l
|M |
4 (l | M |)!
Tingkat Energi Rotasi
Energi (tenaga gerak) rotasi adalah:
or
4.1. Momentum Sudut Orbital
Atau.
4.1. Momentum Sudut Orbital